at last matured, the appeal of Urban the Se-ever, is anything but new to the literary cond was received, all tend to make the his world, for Mills, in his "History of the tory of the first crusade the most important Crusades," frequently speaks of the Archportion of European mediæval history. It bishop as the copyist of Albert; but with rewas the first updrawing of the curtain from gard to the "Gesta Francorum," we have a scene of gorgeous romance, the commence- here for the first time a view taken of that ment of a brilliant æra of war, and chivalry, document which entirely alters its position and diplomacy; it called into display a among the histories of the crusade. There thousand splendid qualities, and into action are two works called by this name, but Sybel, a thousand splendid characters, which would otherwise have been occupied and expended in petty provincial warfare; it united and, as it were, fused together the best and most p. 461, says, "It is an improvement of Tudeattractive parts of the eastern and western bode," and with this brief notice proceeds to character; it gave a new impulse to poetry the other. There is, however, much imporand music and architecture, and it poured tant matter here left untouched, and we shall into Christendom, with a tide which continu- therefore proceed to give a few extracts from ed for three centuries to flow, all the compa- Dr. Sybel's work, as to the history and value ratively ripened civilisation of the then more of the "Gesta Francorum." advanced East.

by referring to the pages of Bongarsius, identifies the one to which he alludes: it is the same of which Mills in his History, vol. i.,

But of this interesting period we have had "John Besly, in his Preface to Tudebode, asuntil lately no well written and faithful his- serts with great confidence that the work entitled Gesta Francorum,' which in former times tory. In England this want struck less for- was used as an authentic and original docucibly on the mind, because the subsequent ment, is in fact no more than a plagiarism of glories of Richard Cœur de Lion absorbed the very grossest description, and that as the the national attention, and the former period anonymous compiler had to thank his verbal lay in comparative obscurity without any attempt being made to illustrate it.

In 1820, however, appeared Mills' History of the Crusades; and this, though necessarily bestowing but a comparatively short space on the first of these expeditions, is the largest and best connected work treating on the subject which is accessible to the English reader. Yet there are few portions of history of which the contemporaneous accounts are more numerous or more diffuse. Dr. Sybel classes these into, first, letters of individual crusaders, of which a few still exist, and of which some might be made available in the compilation of a history of the period; secondly, letters from princes and popes, among which those of Alexius Comnenus to Robert, Count of Flanders, and those of Ur

1

following of Tudebode for his fame, it was a mere matter of duty to expose his misdoing. He grounds this assertion upon three places, one in which the writer speaks of himself, and two in which he alludes to his deceased brothers."-р. 23.

Besides this it appears that Tudebode spoke frequently of himself, and that the anonymous writer has carefully left out all such passages. Now it is to the merest chance that Besly owes the consent of all later writers to this assertion, and it would probably have remained uncontradicted to this time, had not our author been led by the character of some passages in the "Gesta Francorum," as well as by the doubts of Professor Ranke, to investigate the subject. A short examination proved to him that Bes

ban II. to Alexius, are the most important; ly was mistaken, and that Winkel and other and thirdly, the contemporaneous histories historians of the crusades had been subject and chronicles of the crusade. The first to considerable errors in consequence of takpart of Dr. Sybel's work is occupied by an ing up the same opinion.

investigation of these sources, and is distin

guished by an accuracy and a patient research which leaves little if anything to be

"In the first passage (upon which Besly's assertion is grounded) Tudebode relates an unlucky occurrence which took place during the siege of Jerusalem, and he adds-Tudebode, a Professor Ranke, in the year 1837, called priest of Sivray, the author of this history, was much attention to an investigation of the present and saw the event. The whole narrasources from which our knowledge of the tion to which this assertion refers is wanting history of the first crusade is derived. In the in the 'Gesta,' and I see nothing improbable in course of this investigation it appeared, says the supposition that Tudebode, having proceedDr. Sybel, that the first books of William of ed so far in his copy, inserted in this place an event of which he was an eye-witness. As Tyre were a mere rifacciamento of other and to his following the army with his brethren it earlier writers, as Albert of Aix, Raimond, is of course impossible to disprove it, though and the Gesta Francorum." This, how-! many difficulties would arise if we endeavour to derive from his account that of the 'Gesta. His personal character is so beautifully

Again, the anonymous author speaks throughout in the first person; Tudebode speaks some

times in the first, sometimes in the third, and changes back without any apparent motive to the first again."-p. 23.

sketched from his own writings by Dr. Sybel, that we cannot refrain from laying before our readers a few passages.

"If his personal character be not so clearly indicated as that of Raimond, it is nevertheless The priestly character of Tudebode forms sufficiently so to impress us with a sense of his a still stronger evidence of the truth of trustworthiness. In the first place he seems Dr. Sybel's conclusion, for a similar incon- evidently penetrated with the universal idea of the holiness of the expedition. He connects it sistency prevails in that respect as in his immediately with God's ordination, and in a confusion of the first and third persons. The hundred places speaks of God as their great anonymous writer was a knight, and speaks leader and protector. 'The Almighty God, ever consistently with his knightly character, gracious and merciful, who alloweth not his

while Tudebode is perpetually changing his tone and represents his occupation sometimes to be war and sometimes religion, and sometimes a strange (to us at least) mixture of both. This incongruity is easily compre

host to perish, sent us help.' 'So were our enemies overcome through the might of God, and of the Holy Sepulchre.' 'We walked secure among the fields and mountains, blessing and praising the Lord.' With such expressions does he begin and end almost every narration of

hended if we consider the writer merely as individual exploits and conflicts. We may ina copyist, but it is totally incomprehensible deed say that all this was to be expected, and on any other supposition. Another point that an indifference to such subjects among his which Besly passes over as though it were contemporaries would have spoiled and disturb

ed the picture; but their enthusiasm is kept within its due bounds, and neither leads to the neglect of temporal affairs, nor does he regard the enemy with the eye of a controversialist."

of small moment, Sybel rightly notices as one of great importance; it is by itself almost sufficient to settle the question of priority. Tudebode has copied many passages verbatim from the book of Raimond of Agiles. For 180 pages does Dr. Sybel investigate Now if the author of the "Gesta" had copied the sources of the history of the crusade; Tudebode, it could hardly fail but that some and though considerable attention had been at least of these passages would have found paid to the subject before, his labours have their way into the transcript; yet not one is been rewarded by what, if we cannot call to be seen, and the very place in which Rai- them discoveries, are at least strikingly novel mond and the "Gesta" are agreed most re- views. Nor are these views hastily taken markably upon, affords the most remarkable up; the reader's judgment is carried along proof of this fact, for Tudebode, after giving with the investigator, and we rise from the to a certain extent the words of the "Gesta, perusal of this part of the volume, impressed transcribes next several passages from Rai- with the conviction that a history of the first mond, and then goes back once more to crusade, in every respect worthy to be the words of the "Gesta." Our limits credited, has been hitherto a desideratum. will not allow us to follow the doctor One of the most interesting points on which through the proofs which he gives in sup- Dr. Sybel has exerted his critical acumen is port of his position; passages in which the origin of the crusade itself, so long attriRaimond is evidently wrong are copied into buted to the solitary of Amiens. We shall the book of Tudebode, and the inconsisten- briefly give an analysis of what our author cies of the latter, as well as the internal evi- advances on this topic.

dences of the "Gesta" and the results of an The character and adventures of Peter the examination into the Historia Belli Sacri, all Hermit occupy much of the attention of tend to show that the first "Gesta," in the every writer on the Crusades, and it is somecollection of Bongarsius, is the most trust- what curious to notice the inconsistency worthy record of the first crusade that has which they have displayed. Few persons reached our times. We have but little in- have been more misunderstood than this formation as to the life of the author. celebrated individual; the sneers of Gibbon, and the all but adoration of some of the

"We know only that in the year 1096 he monkish writers, have been alike taken as went with Bohemund to Amalfi, and remained true. The actions of a sage have been atwith his forces till the siege of Antioch by Ker- tributed to one described as a weak enthusibuga. He served here among the knights, and ast, and the influence of a sovereign to a had the fortune to be concerned in almost every

undertaking of consequence. He accompanied despised outcast. In one respect, however, Robert of Normandy and Raimond of Thoulouse all have been agreed-in whatever mode they and Tripoli, and this is the last of his personal chose to represent the man himself, they adventures that we are able to trace." p. 26. unanimously attributed to him the first move

ments of the crusade. That he led to Pales- and by the 8th of the following March, without

much negotiation, the first crusaders are already in Hungary. ungary. is a creation of God's command through the instrumentality of a weak hermit. The Pope appears only as the third link in the chain, and then in the most unpretending manner."

tine a vast undisciplined host, nearly all of whom fell a sacrifice to their own vices and follies, is undoubted; that he previously organized a similar but smaller band (if indeed it could be said to be organized at all), under the banner of Walter the Pennyless, otherwise Walter Habenichts, otherwise Gautur de Vaurien (titles all of the same import), has never been denied: that he remained with the army of the crusades until the war was over, and headed such ragamuffins as the Christians and the cruelties of the Sararemained to him, is a matter of history; cens, urging rich and poor to band together equally so is it that, previous to the first

armament, he preached in various countries.

With this legend are all the histories from Albert of Aix downwards interwoven. Peter, after his interview with the Pope, went from country to country, detailing the miseries of

"Il gran sepolcro liberar di Cristo."

But here we must stop. Dr. Sybil brings As with one voice, so runs the same strain, together a few facts that throw a strong the nations responded to his call. Deus id light on this portion of history. First, let us vult! Deus id vult! was the cry, not at the take the legend properly so called; we will next deal with the romance. Albert and William of Tyre shall be our authorities.

council of Clermont only, but throughout Christendom; and an armament before the year was out proceeded on its way only to

Deeply grieved on account of the heathenish be, as it were, pioneers for one yet mightier enormities, he prayed in the Church of the Holy and more enthusiastic. Four successive levies Sepulchre till he sunk to sleep; then appeared took place, which well nigh drained Europe to him the Saviour in heavenly glory and spake of her vilest as well as of her most fanatical to him, a weak and sinful man. 'Peter, my sons; men, women and children, the old and dearest son, stand up, go to my Patriarch and the young, set out together; ill-armed, illtake from him the letter of my mission. In victualled, and not disciplined at all. Before thine own land thou shalt speak of the misery they had left France, the children were in

of the Holy State, and shalt awaken the of those who believe there, that they may purge Jerusalem and rescue the saints out of the hands of the Heathen, for the gates of Paradise are open to him whom I have called and chosen; and Peter rose up at dawn and went to the Patriarch to receive the letter of mission, and the

Patriarch gave it to him and thanked him exceedingly; and Peter went his way and prepared for his departure in the greatest anxiety, so he came to Bari, and at last to Rome. There the Pope received with joy and humility the word of calling, and went first to Vercelli and then to Clermont to preach the way of the Lord. And all lands arose and all princes and knights throughout France to set free the Holy Sepulchre. On the 8th of March in the year

1096, Walter the Pennyless, a powerful knight with a mighty following of infantry and eight lances, the first crusader on his way to Jerusalem, passed into the potent kingdom of Hungary."

quiring about every town they came to, whether that were Jerusalem, and the parents were hardly able to answer the question. The commanders of these mobs were successively Walter the Pennyless, Peter the Hermit, Godeschalco and Emicho, the two latter being counts, and about as indifferent characters as the middle ages could produce. Upwards of a quarter of a million persons perished in these four expeditions, after exhibiting all the vices and all the brutality that could degrade human nature.

No individual will require any further notice (of those, i. e. who were concerned with these first movements), save Peter himself. And here, when we come to seek for contemporary notices of him and his doings, we find them wonderfully small. Radulph of Caen, who pays him no great respect even at the beginning, leaves him out altogether

On this Sybel makes some very valuable when Raimond and Bohemond and Robert

remarks, but as we have no space to follow the pennyless knight, we will just en passant observe that his host was all before long destroyed. Now to our author's observations:

"The character of this relation appears not to be mistaken; it is the history of a wonder, a holy legend, if ever there was such. Christ, the Saviour of the world, appears and commands a crusade; he speaks the word and the deed is done. As soon as Peter has mentioned it, the Pope receives it, and announces it to others;

of Normandy appear on the field. None of the strictly contemporaneous writers speak of him otherwise than they do of Walter and Emicho. The English and Italians scarcely heard of him at all; and what they did know was merely that, after having taken upon him to preach a crusade, he led a tumultuous rabble into the Holy Land. Anna Comnena indeed, who calls him Cuckoo Peter, speaks of him as a kind of saint; but then, as Sybel well observes, it must be remembered that Walter the Pennyless had prepared the mind done otherwise, without too much outraging of Alexius to receive him in that capacity, the recorded history of the times, and taking and that vile and ill-disciplined as was the too much from the probability of his story to mob which he called the army of Christ, it be consistent with an epic poem. But we was nevertheless a formidable neighbour for have lingered too long over this discussion, the peaceful citizens of Constantinople. and must pass on with the now assembled Peter himself, too, was a man of family and croises to the land of their destination. Eusome dignity, accustomed to the society of rope had been purged by the first four levies the great, and probably convinced that he of her refuse; she now prepared to send was in reality called of God to undertake forth the noble, the wealthy and the chivalthis expedition.

ric. Godfrey, the sixth lord of Bouillon, Marquis of Anvers and Duke of Brabant, was "The Byzantines," observes the doctor, in all respects the most considerable of those "were already made somewhat acquainted who took up the cross. For his power, his with him, when he approached them with a abilities and his virtues he stood pre-eminent; numerous array. The emperor called Peter to his presence, and learnt from him that he had his learning and his wisdom made him in

been in Palestine (what and what kind of visions he had been favoured with was not now the question); that he had preached in all countries the hermit asserted. Of the Pope he said not a syllable-indeed why should he, for the probability is that he had never seen him, but according to his own belief had gone on his mission quite secure that he had the authority of a higher Power than that of the preacher before the council of Clermont."-pp. 240, 241.

valuable to the expedition, and it is probable that he was the only commander among the soldiers of the cross whose motives in the enterprise were thoroughly pure. Even Tancred, the "preux chevalier," looked as much to personal glory as Bohemond did to power and wealth; and the latter, though he has been leniently treated by Tasso, must be regarded as a rapacious and suspicious as well as an ambitious prince, not incapable of treachery, and characterized by a thorough selfishness. Raimond of Thoulouse, stern and severe, but brave and at times generous

It is perfectly marvellous how little the earlier historians say about Peter. Fulcher does not even mention his name, and Hugo Flor gives it only among those of the other -Robert of Normandy, endowed with talents chiefs. Ekkehard, Robert the Monk, Baldric and valour which might have raised him to and Guibert, say little more: nor should we the highest rank among the princes of his

in all probability have heard more of him, had it not been necessary to refresh from time to time the fainting spirits of the Christian warriors by reminding them of the miraculous origin of their enterprise.

The great historian of the first crusade, again, is one whose object was to give as strong a supernatural colouring as possible to the whole series of events which he relates. It is said that when the Duke of Marlbo

time, but so totally devoid of sound judgment that his other qualifications were uselessRobert Frisco, Count of Flanders, brave like every knight of that day, but a mere soldier -Stephen of Blois and Chartres, the most powerful of the French barons, whose castles are said to have amounted to more than three hundred in number-Hugh, the Great Earl, as he was emphatically called, brother of the King of France and Count of Ver

rough made some incorrect assertion with mandois-such were the chiefs under whose respect to a point of English history, and command a deluge of well-disciplined troops was asked from what historical writer he was poured into the East, there to perish drew his information, he replied, "From without leaving any solid fruit of their vicShakspeare, I never read any other history tories and sufferings. Alexius Comnenus sat of England." This is much more the case on the throne of Constantine; and, though with the events of the first crusade; the the empire of the East was fast decaying, he sources of its history are unknown save to imagined that its restoration to its pristine scholars. Modern works on the subject have glory was a work reserved for himself. But been few and far between, and what ideas the crafty and disingenuous mind of Alexius readers in general have of that eventful pe- was ill calculated for the circumstances of

riod are derived, not from the "Gesta Francorum" or the Archbishop of Tyre, but from the enchanting pages of Tasso. Now we find that with every disposition to exalt Peter, with a natural love of the marvellous, and a necessity of employing it in the structure of his poem, Tasso makes the hermit but a secondary character; he could not indeed have

his day; he had to contend with enemies far more mighty, and, if not so cunning, at least as wise as himself. The Turkish and Saracen opponents of the Greek empire were not the barbarous hordes who had overrun the West; they were highly civilized; their capitals were the abodes of art and science and literature. Poetry and music and all the amenities of life were cultivated among them | hostility to the leaders of the crusade. That to no common degree; and what was far he was unwise in this we have already ⚫ more effectual to make them formidable op- shown; he would better have consulted his ponents, they fought with a religious enthu- own dignity by declining to answer Hugh at siasm. Under these circumstances, had Alex- all by appealing to the princes of Europe. ius been actuated by an enlightened spirit of As it was he threw many obstacles in the policy, he would have aided the chiefs of the way of the Christian princes, and lost the crusade and strengthened his own position. opportunity of turning their arms in such They would have repelled his enemies and directions as might have forwarded his own extended his dominions. As it was, he em- patriotic designs. It is impossible to go through ployed himself in sowing fears and jealousies the course of events-to notice the bloodshed among them; sent help when it was not re- among the crusaders, the treachery, the wiliquired, withdrew with his whole army when ness that marked the conduct of the Greek his appearance might have turned the scale; sovereign. War was almost ever prevalent flattered and cajoled each leader in turn with between the Latins and the Greeks, the most a view to detach him from the rest, and is solemn engagements to peace were violated more than suspected of having induced the by the generals of Alexius, and doubtless by Persian sultan to interfere and send forces to the emperor's command; while not unfrethe relief of Antioch when beleaguered by quently the Latins, urged to fury, took fierce the Christian army. vengeance upon their treacherous allies, and

At the same time the abilities of the em- made them in turn the subjects of slaughter peror are not to be underrated, nor are the and plunder. At length the host having difficulties of his position to be forgotten.

"The narrow circumstances of his treasury," says Dr. Sybel, "were quite inconsistent with a state of warfare. The cultivated condition of this branch of the public service, which was once so characteristic of the old Roman empire,

escaped not a few dangers, and having lost not a few of their numbers, sat down to besiege Nice in Bithynia, the capital of Rhoum, the Seljukian kingdom. For seven weeks the siege lasted, and at the expiration of that time, when the city could not have resisted

was lost with the lands over which its sway much longer, Alexius sent forces and proviextended, and the defects only of the more an- sions, and at the same time entered into a cient system with its hardness and its despotism treaty with the Niceans to deliver up the remained. Measures such as are occasionally city to him; so that when the crusaders were resorted to in all times by bad governments about to make their final attack the banners were here the rule, not the exception-the coin

age was repeatedly debased-metal, both rough of the Greek emperor were displayed on the and manufactured, was seized upon wherever walls, and the city was pronounced his prize. it was found-extraordinary taxes without hesi- It was with some difficulty the Latin army tation made permanent. From one day and could be reconciled to this gross breach of one requisition a respite was only obtained till faith, for Alexius had distinctly agreed that another-every moment was deemed a gain- every captured town should be their own. and the present pressure allowed no thought for future welfare or future misfortune." "Such At length, however, the entreaties of Godfrey was the state of affairs in the year 1092, four and others prevailed, and the troops marched years before the first appearance of the crusad- on towards Antioch. In their way they were ers at Constantinople. The times,' says Anna much annoyed and much injured by the forces Comnena, 'in which the Roman name ruled of Saisan, son of Kilidge Arslan, the prince from Thule to Meroe were over. Adrianople or sultan of the Seljuks, who hung about their on the one hand, the Bosphorus on the other, formed the boundaries of the empire. Alexius rear with one party, while with another he himself, she adds, had formed the resolution swept the country of provisions before them to extend them to the Euphrates and the Adri--in Phrygia 500 people died in one day atic sea; and it must be acknowledged that the from the want of water. In the meantime very determination, considering the lowness of an excursion was made into Cilicia by Tanhis then condition, the historical consciousness

of his dignity, and the resolve to realise it as far as possible, were at all events likely to prevent

its total extinction." "

cred and Baldwin, and Tarsus was taken; and here a melancholy picture is presented of treachery and cruelty by the conduct of

the latter chief, conduct which was of itself sufficient to prevent any future union among

The condition of the Byzantine government was also in a state of amelioration-the the crusaders. Baldwin, indeed, seems no Seljukian dynasty of Rhoum was no longer longer to have desired such union, for we formidable the troops of Alexius had ob- find him detaching himself from the rest and tained some unexpected successes, and the making war on his account at Edessa; he haughty conduct of Hugh, Count of Verman- was adopted by the Duke Thoros as his own dois, induced the emperor to act in direct son, and at the death of Thoros, who was