Some grammarians have supposed that the Potential Mood, as distinguished above from the Subjunctive, coincides with the indicative. But as the latter "simply indicates or declares a thing," it is manifest that the former, which modifies the declaration, and introduces an idea materially distinct from it, must be considerably different. "I can walk," "I should walk," appear to be so essentially distinct from the simplicity of "I walk," "I walked," as to warrant a correspondent distinction of moods. The Imperative and Infinitive Moods, which are allowed to retain their rank, do not appear to contain such strong marks of discrimination from the Indicative as are found in the Potential Mood,

There are other writers on this subject who exclude the Potential Mood from their division, because it is formed, not by varying the principal verb, but by means of the auxiliary verbs may, can, might, could, would, &c.: but if we recollect, that moods are used " to signify various intentions of the mind, and various modifications and circumstances of action," we shall perceive that those auxiliaries, far from interfering with this design, do, in the clearest manner, support and exemplify it. On the reason alleged by these writers, the greater part of the Indicative Mood must also be excluded; as but a small part of it is conjugated without auxiliaries. The Subjunctive too will fare no better; since it so nearly resembles the Indicative, and is formed by means of conjunctions, expressed or understood, which do not more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind, than the auxiliaries do which are used to form the Potential Mood.

Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent than we have assigned to them. They assert that the English language may be said, without any great impropriety, to have as many moods as it has auxiliary verbs; and they allege, in support of their opinion, that the compound expressions which they help to form, point out those various dispositions and actions, which, in other languages, are expressed by moods. This would be to multiply the moods without advantage. It is, however, certain, that the conjugation or variation of verbs, in the English language, is effected, almost entirely, by the means of auxiliaries. We must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this circumstance; and do that by their assistance, which has been done in the learned languages, (a few instances to the contrary excepted,) in another manner, namely, by varying the form of the verb itself. At the same time, it is necessary to set proper bounds to this business, so as not to occasion obscurity and perplexity, when we mean to be simple and perspicuous. Instead, therefore, of making a separate mood for every auxiliary verb, and introducing moods Interrogative, Optative, Promissive, Hortative, Precative, &c. we have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct; and which, whilst they are calculated to unfold and display the subject intelligibly to the learner, seem to be sufficient, and not more than sufficient, to answer all the purposes for which moods were introduced.

From Grammarians who form their ideas, and make their decisions, respecting this part of English Grammar, on the principles and construction of languages, which, in these points, do not suit the peculiar nature of our own, but differ considerably from it, we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous, nor perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex than inform the learner. See Sections 8 and 9 of this Chapter, and Note 8 under the 19th Rule of Syntax.

SECTION 5.

Of the Tenses.

TENSE, being the distinction of time, might seem to admit only of the present, past, and future: but to mark it more accurately, it is made to consist of six variations, viz.

THE PRESENT,

THE IMPERFECT,

AND

THE PERFECT,

THE PLUPERFECT,

THE FIRST AND SECOND FUTURE TENSES.

The present Tense represents an action or event, as passing at the time in which it is mentioned: as, "I rule; I am ruled; I think; i fear."

THE present tense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c. at present existing: as, "He is an able man;" "She is an amiable woman." It is also used in speaking of actions continued, with occasional intermissions to the present time: as, "He frequently rides;" "He walks out every morning;" "He goes into the country every summer." We sometimes apply this tense even to persons long since dead: as, "Seneca reasons and moralizes well;" "Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions."

The present tense, preceded by the words, when, before, af ter, as soon as, &c, is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action: as, "When he arrives he will hear the news;" "He will hear the news before he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or, at farthest, soon after he arrives;" "The more she improves, the more amiable she will be."

In animated historical narrations this tense is sometimes substituted for the imperfect tense : as, "He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabitants: he fights and conquers, takes an immense booty, which he divides amongst his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy a vain and useless triumph."

Every point of space or duration, how minute soever it may be, has some degree of extension. Neither the present nor any other instant of time is wholly unextended. Nay, we cannot conceive, as Dr. Beattie justly observes, an unextended instant: and that which we call the present, may in fact admit of very considerable extension. While I write a letter, or read a book, I say, that I am reading or writing it, though it should take up an hour, a day, a week, or a month; the whole time being considered as present, which is employed in the present action. So, while I build a house, though that should be the work of many months, I speak of it in the present time, and say that I am building it. In like manner, in contradistinction to the century past, and to that which is to come, we may consider the whole space of an hundred years as time present, when we speak of a series of actions, or of a state of existence, that is co-extended with it; as in the fol lowing example : "In this century we are more neglectful of the ancients, and we are consequently more ignorant than they were in the last, or perhaps they will be in the next." Nay, the entire term of man's probationary state in this world, when opposed to that eternity which is before bim, is considered as present time by those who say, "In this state we see darkly as through a glass; but in a future life, our faith will be lost in vision, and we shall know even as we are known."

The imperfect Tense represents the action or event, either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past: as, "I loved her for her modesty and virtue;" "They were travelling post when he met them."

The first example, in the preceding paragraph, shows that the action was past and finished, though the precise time of it was not defined. In this point of view the tense may be said to be imperfect: the time of the action is not exactly and per fectly ascertained. In the second instance, the action is re

presented as past, but not finished; and it may therefore, with propriety, be denominated imperfect.

It is proper to observe, on this occasion, that in such sentences as the following; "He wrote to him yesterday;" "They behaved themselves at that period very properly;" the precise time of the action is not denoted by the tense of the verb itself, but by the addition of the words, yesterday, and at that period. - See the Note at page ; and the last paragraph of the Seventh chapter of Etymology, on the subject of Adverbs.

The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, but also conveys an allusion to the present time: as, " I have finished my letter;" " I have seen the person that was recommended to me."

In the former example it is signified that the finishing of the letter, though past, was at a period immediately preceding the present time. In the latter instance it is uncertain whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or short time before. The meaning is, "I have seen him sometime in the course of a period which includes, or comes to, the present time." In both instances, "The finishing of the letter," and "The seeing of the person," comprehend periods, each of which extends to the time present. We have no idea of any certain portion of time intervening between the time of action and the time of speaking of it. The sentence, "I have written a letter," implies that "I have, or possess, the finished action of writing a letter." Under these views of the subject, it appears that the term perfect may be properly applied to this tense; as the action is not only finished, but the period of its completion is specially referred to, and ascertained.

When the particular time of any occurrence is specified, as prior to the present time, this tense is not used; for it would be improper to say, "I have seen him yesterday;" or, "I have finished my work last week." In these cases the imperfect is necessary: as, "I saw him yesterday;" "I finished my work last week." But when we speak indefinitely of any thing past, as happening or not happening in the day, year, or age, in which we mention it, the perfect must be employed: as, "I have been there this morning;" "I have travelled much this year:" "We have escaped many dangers through life." In referring, however, to such a division of the day as is past before the time of our speaking, we use the Imperfect: as, "They came home early this morning;" "He was with them at three o'clock this afternoon."

The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote a thing that is past; but the former denotes it in such a manner, that there is still actually remaining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been done; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. If we speak of the present century, we say, "Philosophers have made great discoveries in the present century:" but if we speak of the last century, we say, "Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century." "He has been much afflicted this year;" "I have this week read the king's proclamation;" "I have heard great news this morning :" in these instances, "He has been," "I have read," and "heard," denote things that are past; but they occurred in this year, in this week, and to-day; and still there remains a part of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak.

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence either of the author or of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. We may say, "Cicero has written orations; but we cannot say, "Cicero has written poems;" because the orations are in being, but the poems are lost. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, "They have in all ages claimed great powers;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists: but if we speak of the Druids as a particular order of priests which does not now exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot say, "The Druid priests have claimed great powers;" but must say, "The Druid priests claimed great powers;" because that order is now totally extinct.*

The perfect tense, preceded by the words when, after, as soon as, &c. is often used to denote the relative time of a future action: as, "When I have finished my letter, I will at tend to his request:" "I will attend to the business, as soon as I have finished my letter."

The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing not only as past, but also as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence: as, "I had finished my letter before he arrived."