nent modification in his physique, a fact which the traveller can easily verify for himself; on the other hand, those who have attempted to settle in his country have either been eliminated by the inexorable climatic and other influences, or have become absorbed into the native population. The Egyptian of the soil is practically unchangeable physically, and it is not too much to say that mentally and intellectually he remains the same as he was 7,000 years ago. It was probably only a comparatively limited upper class, containing foreign elements, which made the Egyptians celebrated for their learning. That this upper class had very little influence on the general population of the country is evident from many things, and it is certain that, to all intents and purposes, the conquering. element and the conquered had extremely little in common. The peasant proprietors and their labourers in the fields lived in precisely the same way as their ancestors from time immemorial; their manners and customs were the same, and their religious beliefs were identical. Their conquerors changed the names of some of the old gods of the country, but they never succeeded in altering the people's conceptions of the celestial powers and their attributes. There is good reason for believing that many of the manners and customs of the primitive Egyptians were identical with those of the primitive population which extended down the Nile from Central Africa. Many of the religious beliefs and ceremonies which are made known to us by the hieroglyphic texts have their equivalents among the A-Zande, or Niam Niams, and the Bantu and Fanti tribes at the present day, and it seems certain that these were developed by the Dynastic Egyptians from the earlier nhabitants of the Nile Valley. All the facts available suggest that the inhabitants of the Nile Valley as a whole have never changed the fundamentals of their religion, and that, substantially, they believe now what they believed 6,000 years ago. The outward expressions of these beliefs are different in different places, but among all the main Sûdânî peoples and tribes the doctrines about the Creator and creation, and about good and evil spirits, the soul, death, and the future life, and the cult of the divine ancestor, are the same. Solar cults were introduced into Egypt by its conquerors, and were practised for many centuries (principally by kings, priests, and the aristocracy), but they never appealed to the great mass of the population, and in the minds of the people they occupied a position subordinate to those of the truly indigenous cults.

2. The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians.

THE earliest proof that the Egyptians possessed religious beliefs is afforded by the pre-dynastic graves which have been excavated at Gabalên, Nakâdah, Abydos, and other sites during the last 35 years. In these, in addition to the human remains which were deposited in them either as whole or disjointed bodies, have been found jars and vases containing substances which were intended to serve as food for the deceased on his journey to some place of abode beyond the grave, and weapons of flint wherewith he might defend himself against the foes of various kinds which he was expected to meet on the road thither. Thus it is clear that the pre-dynastic Egyptians believed that a man would, after death, enjoy life in some form, and in some place, to reach which they did their utmost to provide him with means; it is probable that they considered such a life to be merely a prolongation or renewal of the life which a man led upon earth, and that they imagined it would include joys and pleasures, perhaps also rewards, of a material character. Where, however, that life was lived, or the manner of region in which it was lived, we have no means of knowing, and whether this life after death was everlasting or not we know not. We may, however, assume that the beliefs of the primitive Egyptians resembled those of some of the peoples and tribes of the north-east quarter of Africa, who live under the same conditions as they lived, and on land which is similar to theirs. Speaking generally, it seems that the primitive Egyptians peopled earth, air, river, and sky with spirits or beings, some of which were benevolent and some malevolent, and that to these they attributed various degrees of power. The greater number of such beings were probably regarded by them as being of a nature like unto themselves; and there was perhaps a time when the Egyptians did not believe in the existence of any beings who were different from themselves.

What is known of the religion of Egypt in dynastic times suggests that in the earliest period of its history each community possessed its own supernatural being or spirit, who had his own peculiar form, and his own special manner of making himself manifest, and it is pretty certain that the views which the bulk of the community held concerning him dictated the ceremonies which, it was believed, would conciliate it or procure its aid. In connection with this period in the history

of Egyptian religion it is important to state that many of the spirits which were adored at that time became gods subsequently, and continued to be the objects of worship of the dynastic Egyptians, and that many of the ceremonies connected with their service were celebrated for some thousands of years, though in some cases variations were made in details.

Besides all these beings, the Egyptians believed in the existence of One Great and Almighty God, Who created the world and everything in it. They seem to have thought, just as modern African tribes think, that He was too exalted to concern Himself with the affairs of men and the governance of this world, and therefore He committed all such things to a large number of spirits, or "gods," some of whom were benevolent, and some malevolent. Both classes of "gods" could be propitiated with offerings, and hence arose the worship by means of offerings which plays such a prominent part in the Egyptian religion.

In primitive times it was believed that spirits manifested themselves in birds, animals, reptiles, trees, stones, etc., and that under certain circumstances they had the power of speaking in human language. Certain spirits attached themselves to certain animals, either temporarily or permanently, and many animals, eg., the lion, jackal, bull, ram, were held to be abodes of spirits or supernatural powers by the pre-dynastic Egyptians, and by the later inhabitants of the country. Besides living creatures, the primitive Egyptians adored various objects to which it is customary to give the name of fetishes ;* among these may be mentioned the TET,, which is a modification of the sign placed upon a pillar, or pedestal,

and represents nothing more nor less than a portion of the back of Osiris. The setting up of upon a pillar symbolized the resurrection, and an amulet so shaped, or even a picture of it, gave to the wearer the gift of "renewed life." Another

*From the Portuguese feitiço "sorcery, witchcraft." The word was first applied by the Portuguese sailors and traders to objects worshipped by the natives, which were regarded as charms or talismans. A fetish was supposed to have a spirit embodied in it, which acted through it, and held communication with it. It was treated as if it possessed personal consciousness and power, was talked with, worshipped, prayed to, sacrificed to, and petted or ill-treated with reference to its past or future behaviour to its votaries. E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. ii, p. 133.

interesting "fetish" is the

Å

or so-called "buckle of Isis."

This object was, however, no buckle, but an internal organ of the body of Isis, which contained her life blood. An amulet so shaped, and made of red stone, or even a picture of it, gave to the wearer the magical power of the blood of the goddess. Both these objects were in some way intimately connected with the history of Osiris, and as such they played prominent parts in his worship at all periods; but it is pretty certain that the true history of their connection with the god was forgotten at a very early period, especially as the pictorial representations of them could not, in the first instance, have been very faithful.

At the time when the Egyptians were worshipping spirits they probably adored the great powers of nature, and the sun, moon, and stars, light, darkness, etc., and they thought that the spirits of these could dwell in birds, animals, snakes, and other creatures. Every village community possessed its local spirit, and, in later days, every town and city had its own group of spirits, or "gods as we may call them, among which were included the great spirits or great gods who were worshipped throughout the country. Such spirits and gods shared the good or evil fortune of the community to which they belonged. Their emblems or symbols were carried out to war, special habitations were set apart for them, and their upkeep was provided for out of common funds. As the riches of the community increased, the rank and dignity of its god kept pace with them, but his revenues suffered in times of scarcity, defeat, and war; the gods and their emblems might even be carried off into captivity and burnt, when, of course, the spirits or gods suffered defeat and death like their votaries. The number of such spirits or "gods" was very considerable in early times, and even in the dynastic period the "gods" could be counted by hundreds. The reduction in the number of spirits began when man realized that certain of them were mightier than others, and the same may be said of the "gods." As man developed, his conception of his "spirit," or "god," developed also, and a time came when he decided to represent his object of fear or worship in human form. The god who is always represented in human form is TEM, or AтмU, and it seems as if he were the product of a higher form of religious thought than that which existed among the purely African peoples. To a great many of the gods of the pre-dynastic

Egyptians human bodies were given in pictures of them, and it is possible that this custom may be the result of a transition period in religious development when man began to be tired of or dissatisfied with gods in wholly animal forms. Thus we have a hawk-headed man for Ra and other solar gods, a jackalheaded man for Anubis, a crocodile-headed man for Sebek, a beetle-headed man for Kheperȧ, Osiris the deified dead ancestor is depicted in the form of a swathed, mummied form.

The pictorial representations of such gods usually give to the gods a long, plaited beard, and a long, animal tail; they carried a staff of authority in one hand, and in the other the symbol, i.e., "life," which is the special emblem or attribute of divinity. This sign ankh is a conventionalized form of an internal organ of a woman's body with certain additions. Goddesses also are represented in forms which are part human and part animal or reptile, and all deities were believed to have the power of assuming at pleasure the bird, or animal, or reptile form under which they were supposed to have appeared in primitive times. Thus Ră could become a hawk, Isis and Nephthys could become vultures, Serqet could become a scorpion, powers of evil could become snakes, and so on. This idea was so persistent in later periods that provision was made for enabling the dead man, who had become master of life after death, i.e., who had become a god, to take the form of birds, of the crocodile and serpent, of the lotus, and of certain gods at will. There is no evidence available which would justify us in asserting at exactly what period it became customary to represent the gods in forms which were half human and half animal; but it may have come about as a result of the higher class of civilization which was brought into Egypt by those who taught the Egyptians how to make bricks, and to grow wheat and barley. The important fact to note is that when the change took place one class at least of the Egyptians had advanced from the worship of spirits, fiends, demons, etc., to the cult of animals, and from the cult of animals to the adoration of the man-god, both living and dead. Thus they made their gods in the image of themselves, and they assigned to them wives and offspring, and then proceeded to invent stories about their lives and deeds. Examples of triads, or trinities, are :-Tem + Shu + Tefnut, i.e., father, son and daughter; the trinity of Memphis, Ptaḥ + Sekhmet + NeferTem, ie., father, mother and son; the trinity of Busiris,