respect grew greater." Hence, the Roman writer Ammian who flourished about A. D. 360 says from his experience of the Persians of his time that they "avoided drinking as one would avoid the pest."1

In the Pehelvi literature of the Sassanian period, we have a book called the Andarz-e-Atrapat, i.e., the Admonitions of Adarbad Marespand given to his son Zarthost, in which admonition No. 111 reads as follows: "Drink wine temperately; for he who indulges in it immoderately, commits many kinds of sins."

In the Dinkard ix, 6, is written, "And this too, (bear in mind) that he does not drink varieties of wine with the approval of the sacred beings, who becomes a viciously disposed assailant and annoyer of others, and a disturber of duties, through drink. ing varieties of wine.”2

The Dadistan-i-Dinik recommends abstinence to the robust and intelligent who can do without wine; to others it enjoins strict moderation. This degree of moderation is left to every one to fix for himself; and having once determined it, he is enjoined not to exceed it. Though permissive use of wine is thus granted "until he becomes better or does not become worse," yet the misuse of it is run down in no hesitating way. In chapter 50, we read, "They who shall sell wine to infidels and others, from whom unlawful conduct arises through drunkenness act very sinfully."3

In chapter 51 occur the following question and its answer :Question-"As to one of the good religion who drinks wine immoderately, and loss and injury happen to him owing to that immoderate drinking, what is then the decision about him?"

1 Wine among the Ancient Persians; by Dr. J. J. Modi.

2 Sacred Books of the East: Edited by Prof, Max Müller.

3 Do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

Answer" Even he who gives wine authorisedly unto any one, and he is thereby intoxicated by it, is equally guilty of every sin which that drunkard commits owing to that drunkenness."

Arabia.-Mohammed, the Prophet of Islam, forbids his followers not only to take wine but also to press grapes for the making of it, to buy or to sell it, or even to maintain themselves by the sale of that liquor. The drinking of wine under which name all sorts of strong and inebriating liquors are comprehended is forbidden in the Koran in more places than one. Chap. i; also Chap. v, 92-3, wherein is said,

See

"O true believers, surely, wine and el maisar 1 and images, and divining arrows are an abomination of the work of Satan. Therefore avoid them that you may prosper. Satan seeketh to sow dissension and hatred amongst you by means of wine, and lots and to divert you from remembering God and from prayer. Will ye not therefore abstain from them?"

1 El maisar was a game of chance, played with arrows, the prize being a young camel, which was slaughtered and given to the poor, the price of it being paid by the losers. This distribution to the poor, Mohammed speaks of in the Koran ii, 216, as useful; but the quarrels and extravagance to which the game gave rise, he considers, overbalanced the profit, and hence he prohibits it.

THE CULT OF THE LAKE-GODDESS
OF ORISSA.

BY SARAT CHANDRA MITRA, ESQ., M.A. B.L.

(Read on 30th March 1921).

There is prevalent in Orissa the cult of a goddess of the name of Kālijāi who is regarded as the tutelary deity of the Chilka Lake in that province. The temple of this deity is situated on an island in that lake, which is about 8 miles south-west of the village named Balugaon. There is no anthropomorphic image of this goddess. But her deityship is represented by an irregular block of stone measuring 4 feet high and 3 feet wide. This stone is besmeared with a sticky paste of oil and vermilion on which are plastered large numbers of bangles made of glass or silver, with a pice in the middle of each of the bangles. Similarly, some cowry-shells are also stuck all over the

stone.

This Goddess is looked upon as an incarnation of Kāli, as will appear from the similarity of the names.

The goddess Kālījāi appears to be a local goddess, for she is much worshipped by all classes of people who live in the neighbourhood of Lake Chilka. She is regarded as the special protectress of the Telugu and Uriya boatmen and fishermen who ply their vocations in that lake and who are, therefore, her deityship's most ardent worshippers.

The non-Aryan origin of this goddess is indicated by the fact that there is no priest attached to her temple to perform her worship. Her votaries have to perform their own worship. But in the event of a priest being present at the time of a worship, he is asked to recite the mantrams of worship. Her non-Aryan origin is also evident from the fact that fowls are offered to her deityship as votive offerings.

The worshippers of the goddess Kālijāi believe that she can raise storms for the purpose of sinking the boats of those people who have offended her, and that she can lull storms in order to save the boats of those who have propitiated her.

It is also believed that this goddess can grant boons in the shape of sons to sonless persons, and in that of recovery from illness to sick patients. People who ask for both these boons present to her deityship votive offerings of sheep, goats and fowls which are not actually sacrificed but are let loose upon the island wherein her temple is situated.

As the island-temple of the goddess Kālijāi is not accessible at all times of the year, her daily worship is performed before a representative or substitute, namely, a block of stone which is placed upon an embankment of the Chilka Lake in the vicinity of the residence of the Raja of Parikud. This practice of worshipping the substitute of a god or goddess is stated to be widely prevalent in Orissa.1 For instance, in Bhubanésvara, the principal deity Lingarāja who has also no anthropomorphic image but is represented by a phallic symbol, cannot be removed from his temple. So, on the occasion of the Asoka Ashtami Festival, Lingaraja's substitute the deity Chandrasekhara―is worshipped. Similarly, on the occasion of the Chandanajātrā Festival which is held in the Narendra Tank, the deity Jagannatha of Puri is represented by his substitute the minor godling Madanamohana.

The most interesting features of the foregoing description of the image of Kālijāi—the lake-goddess of Orissa-are the following:

(1) The irregularly-shaped block of stone which represents the goddess;

1 For this information about the lake-goddess of Orissa, I am indebted to a note which has appeared in The Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society for June 1919, pages 300-301.

(2) The red color of the stone which is due to its being besmeared with a mixture of oil and vermilion ;

(3) The bangles made of glass or silver which are plastered all over the stone;

(4) The cowry-shells which are similarly stuck all over the stone block;

(5) The goddess' possession of the power to lull storms in order to save the boats of those people who have propitiated her.

As regards point (1) supra, it may be stated that, in Northern India, stones possessing strange shapes have been looked upon as objects of curiosity. In course of time, these feelings of curiosity developed into feelings of reverence for the strangely shaped stone. As an instance of this, we may take the perforated ammonite shell or Salagrāma stone which is now regularly worshipped in Northern India. In the Kandi sub-division of the district of Murshidā bād in North-Western Bengal, the deity Dharma-thakur, who is a debased prototype of Lord Buddha, and who is worshipped in almost every village of that sub-division, is represented by one or more pieces of stone besmeared with vermilion.

As regards point (2), it has been already stated above that Kālijāi is an incarnation of Kāli. As human sacrifices are very acceptable offerings to Kāli, the same kind of sacrifices must have been offered in the olden times to goddess Kālijāi also. The blood of the human victims, who were sacrificed at the altar of this goddess, appears to have been besmeared all over the block of stone, thereby lending it a red hue. In course of time, the custom of offering human sacrifices fell into desuetude; and, in lieu thereof, sheep, goats and fowls began to be sacrificed. The blood of these sacrificed animals was also daubed all over the stone. Subsequently, the custom of actually sacrificing the beasts and the fowls fell into desuetude; and