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smiths, masons, ivory carvers, armourers, founders and painters, altogether perhaps a tenth of the population. All of these owned service to the king in respect of the lands they held. The lands descended in the family from generation to generation, and were cultivated by the owners. Everyone was thus directly dependent on the land for his living. The craftsmen, however, were not serfs, nor adscriptus glebæ, as a tenant had always the right to refuse service and surrender his land. This, however, only happened in rare instances, as during the last king's reign, when too arduous services were sometimes required. Of temple tenants, Knox remarked that their duties in this life were so easy, that they might expect to suffer for it in the next! But hereditary social status and landholding went very much together, and to surrender the family service land would have been the last thing desired by a Kandyan craftsman. If, by chance, the succession failed, this would be remedied by adoption of a pupil and heir of the same caste.

The State Craftsmen fell into two groups, those of the "Four Workshops" (Pattal Hatara), who worked always at the palace, and those of the separate districts, who had to do certain shares of work at the palace, but were more often at home, where they had to work for the local officials; and those of the artificers' department (Kottal-badde)

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The best of the higher craftsmen, those of the "Four Workshops," formed a close, largely hereditary corporation, and the position was highly valued. From their number were chosen the foremen of the District Craftsmen (Kottal-badde). The four shops were known as the "Regalia," the "Crown," the "Golden Sword," and the "Lion Throne" workshops respectively; but the craftsmen seem to have passed from one to another according to the work required of them. These families were of considerable standing, often possessing very valuable landed property settled upon them by the king on the occasion of their first arrival from India, if, as was often the case, they were of Indian origin, or granted. as a reward for subsequent services. The very name galladda (gam-ladda), by which the superior craftsmen are often designated, means one who possesses or holds a village. There are some families of craftsmen whose history can be traced from at least the fourteenth century by means of the original and subsequent grants which they received from the Sinhalese kings. I give an example of one of these grants, dated 1665 A.D.:

During the reign of His Majesty the mighty Emperor Rāja Simha, . as Marukona Ratna Abharana Vedakārayā reported himself at the palace, orders were given to make certain pieces of jewellery required for the royal dress; and when

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he had made and submitted these pieces of jewellery to the great king, he stated that he needed the Mottuvela Nila-panguve Badavedilla in Pallesiya Pattuva of Asgiri Kōrale, in the Disavanaya of Mātale for his maintenance and His Majesty

did . . . in the year of Saka, 1587, absolutely grant the high and low lands in Mottuvela Badavedilla

. to Marukona Ratna Ābharana Vedakārayā, to be possessed without any disturbance or hindrance during the existence of the Sun, the Moon, Kandy and the Mahāveli river."

As another instance of a special grant may be cited the following charter held by a Kandyan craftsman :

"When the king of kings, Sri Sanghabō Senasammata Vikrama Bāhu, was reigning in Senkadagala (Kandy), he ordered on a full moon day of the twentieth year of his reign, two sheets of cloth, twenty cubits by nine cubits, to be woven, and caused Acharilla Dityaya and his son Sivanta Dityaya to paint thereon the likeness of Buddha seated on a Vajrāsana and surrounded by Sakra, Brahma, and other Devas. On the completion of painting the two sheets, he ordered the ceremony of placing pots full of water, and of other rites; and on the completion of the Nētra Pinkama, his hands having been washed [ceremonial purification

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after painting the eyes of the image, performed by the king himself, as here, or by a craftsman in royal costume], he was graciously pleased to bestow on the two artists, with the object of satisfying them and to enable them to make offerings to Buddha, fields to the extent of four amunu, together with the high land and trees thereon, as well as the houses and all other things pertaining thereto to be held absolutely from generation to generation.

"Now know all ye that are concerned, that the said properties having been bestowed under royal assent to be enjoyed by these artists, their sons, grandsons, and their subsequent generations: if any king, sub-king, courtier, minister, or whatsoever person were to dispute the right to this badavedilla [land given to a craftsman for his subsidence], such person or persons shall be born in the eight hills successively. . . .But, on the other hand, if any person shall confirm and uphold the said gift, he shall after death be born successively in the six heavens and after the termination of the enjoyments of the bliss of these heavens, shall be born in the kingdom of Ketumati, where he shall see Maitri Buddha, by whom the law shall be preached to him, whose holy priesthood he shall enter into, arahatship, and subsequently Nirvana. "In this tenor the royal decree was issued, and

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by command this copperplate Sannas was inscribed by me, Sanhassivanta Nainarumbha. By the merit acquired inscribing this, may I be born in the age of Maitri Buddha."

Besides such grants of land, the king used to reward individual craftsmen with gifts of cloth, money, etc., and by the bestowal of honours and titles.

The District Craftsmen (Kottal-badde-lit. Artificers' Department-one of the Fourteen Departments of Public Works under the Kandyan kings) differed from those of the Four Workshops in not being liable to permanent service at the court. Some of them served in relays for periods of two months at a time, others worked only for the governors of districts, and not directly for the court. In certain of the districts the Governor (Disava) himself held the office of Kottal-badde Nilame, or Overseer of Craftsmen, and in this case he usually appointed from their number a Kottal-badde Vidāne, or officer acting as his lieutenant. In other districts, two Overseers of Craftsmen were appointed by the king. It is interesting that on one occasion, in the seventeenth century, a Dutchman was appointed Overseer of Craftsmen. He entered the king's service for the love of a Sinhalese woman, and was made "Courtalbad," "which is