NINYAS-SARDANAPALUS-END OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE, ETC. CHAPTER XLI. 2000 to 876 B. C. 75 besieged, but he kept his hopes alive by the remembrance of an ancient prediction that "Nineveh could never be taken till the river became her enemy." Ninyas-Sardanapalus - End of the First As- the confederated forces remained two years before the The city being abundantly supplied with provisions, syrian Empire-Its Dismemberment. walls, without compelling the inhabitants to surrender. NINYAS succeeded his mother Semiramis, and when But at length the Tigris, being swelled by an unusual seated on the throne abandoned himself to slothful inundation, threw down more than two miles of the inactivity and luxury. In order to indulge his taste wall; the besiegers entered by this breach, and made unmolested by public affairs, he withdrew from the themselves masters of the city. Sardanapalus at once sight of his subjects, and shut himself up in his palace comprehended his danger, and his last hope being thus with the eunuchs and females with which the royal extinguished, he fled into his palace, determined to dwelling abounded. His army was disbanded at the die in a manner suitable to a great monarch. He end of every year, and replaced by a new one, which ordered a vast funeral pile to be reared in the court of required a considerable time for its organization. By the palace, and on this he placed all his most valuable this arrangement he hoped to prevent all conspira-treasures, amounting to an almost incredible sum. cies against his person. His inglorious life was fol- Upon these he caused to be seated his eunuchs, his lowed by an unlamented death. His successors, wives, and his household attendants; then taking his during a long period of twelve hundred years, com- place among them, he set fire to the pile, and perished prising thirty reigns, so closely imitated his example, with all the rest, amid the conflagration. that their history is buried in total obscurity, and we have no one recorded event to mark the annals of the time. This seems incredible, but it is so related to us by the ancient writers. apalus, representing him in the posture of a dancer, with an inscription, supposed to be addressed by the king to the spectator, in these words: " Eat, drink, and be merry; everything else is nothing." This monarch is said to have ordered two lines to be engraved upon his monument, purporting that he had taken with him all he had enjoyed, leaving the rest behind; an epitaph, as Aristotle justly observes, fit The last of this race of princes was Sardanapalus, who for a swine. Plutarch mentions a statue of Sardanacceded to the throne about 900 B. C. His character exhibits a perfect specimen of sloth, 'degeneracy, and vice. Like his inglorious predecessor, the first of this effeminate dynasty, he secluded himself in his palace, assumed the dress of a woman, imitated the voice and With Sardanapalus ended the first Assyrian monactions of a female, painted his face, handled the dis- archy. The government of the empire was broken taff, &c., and abandoned himself to every degree of up, and the conquerors are said to have completely folly and depravity, till his actions became the disgrace destroyed Nineveh. If this be true, it must have and scandal of the whole empire. This conduct been rebuilt, for it was afterwards a great city. excited the indignation of Arbaces, the governor of We cannot specify dates with any assurance, in Media, and he resolved to vindicate the honor of the this early part of our history, as the most learned and nation by overthrowing the government of this con-accurate writers differ very widely in their chronology temptible despot. For this purpose, he entered into a confederacy with Belesis, the viceroy of Babylon, to dethrone Sardanapalus. They stirred up the Medes, Persians, and Babylonians, to revolt, and brought the King of Arabia into the scheme. By these means, they were enabled to gain the control of the army, and immediately raised the standard of rebellion. of the events above related. The duration of the Assyrian empire, according to Herodotus, who is followed by the critical Usher, was only 520 years. On the other hand, the Greek historians, Ctesias and Diodorus, and the Latin Trogus Pompeius, who are followed by a great number of modern authors, allow 1450 years for the duration of this empire. The date of its conclusion is more certain than that of its commencement. It is commonly fixed about 876 B. C.; some writers make it 888, and others 821 B. C. Sardanapalus was suddenly roused from his voluptuous dreams. Inspired by this desperate emergency, he raised all the forces that remained faithful to him, and boldly encountered his rebel subjects. He was Out of the ruins of this vast empire were formed victorious in three successive battles, and offered a three considerable kingdoms;-that of the Medes, reward of two hundred talents of gold to any one who under Arbaces, the principal head of the conspiracy; would kill Arbaces or Belesis-and twice that sum to that of Babylonia, or the Assyrians of Babylon, under whoever would capture either of them alive. But Belesis; and that of the Assyrians of Nineveh, which, these offers were in vain. Belesis, who was a Chal- at no distant day, we find under the dominion of Pul, dean priest, and a great astrologer, consulted the or Phul. Of the latter, which is called the Second stars every night, as we are told, and after the third Assyrian Kingdom, we shall now give a brief sketch, battle solemnly assured his troops that the heavens remarking by the way, that there is great confusion would now be propitious to their arms. Sardanapalus, in this portion of history. We can do no more than in the mean time, confident of final success, was occu- give what seems to us the most probable view.* pied in arranging a sacrifice and festival, to be celebrated by his army after the total destruction of their enemies. To such an extent did his confidence prevail, that he thought it unnecessary to take the field again in person, but intrusted the command of the army to his brother-in-law, and shut himself up in his palace, at Nineveh, where, it appears, he held his court. The rebels attacked the city, and destroyed the greater part of his army. Sardanapalus was then closely * The history of the Assyrian empire is one of the most obscure portions of ancient biblical literature; and the manner in which it has been hitherto treated has not contributed in any measure to dispel the darkness. In the want of all native histories, the only original sources from which the fragments of the earlier history of this country can be drawn are the Old Testament, Herodotus, and Ctesias. These sources are all evidently independent of each other, but the accounts derived from them are so far from constituting an harmonious whole, that they are in the chief points entirely discordant. Indeed, the two Greek historians are so much at variwith regard to the origin and elevation of the Assyrian and Median ance with the biblical writers, and also with themselves, especially empires, that most critics have assumed a double Assyrian dy CHAPTER XLII. 876 to 606 B. C. The Second Assyrian Kingdom. stricted to Media, cannot be determined. All we can affirm with certainty is, that within about a century after the overthrow of ancient Assyria, Pul appears seated on the throne of the new kingdom as an independent sovereign, and qualified, not merely to sustain EXCEPT a very general sketch of the foundation of his position, but to extend his dominions by conquest. the Assyrian empire, the Bible furnishes us nothing It seems that Menahem, having taken forcible possesof its history, till the time of Pul, who is the first sion of the throne of the kingdom of Israel, attended Assyrian king mentioned in the sacred writings. by the murder of Shallum, his country was invaded The preceding particulars are chiefly drawn from the by the Assyrian king, at the head of a large army. Greek writers; but now we come to the Second As- The usurper averted the threatened blow, by presentsyrian Empire, whose history touches upon that of ing his enemy with a thousand talents of silver. In the Israelites, and the accounts of the latter, inciden- consideration of this tribute, he was confirmed in his tally noticing the former, give us the materials for a throne, and received a promise of the protection of the reliable and consistent narrative. Assyrian monarch. Pul returned to Nineveh, his Before we proceed further, it may be well to cast a capital, not only having made the kingdom of Israel glance at the surrounding nations, especially those tributary, but having also received the homage of which, about this time, begin to figure in the Assy- several other nations in his march. This was a rian annals. To the west, and nearly contiguous to period of great extension of the new empire of AsAssyria, lay the land of Canaan; but the glorious days syria; and here was the beginning of the miseries of David and Solomon were passed, and the Hebrew inflicted upon the Israelites by the Assyrian sovernation was divided into two kingdoms; that of Judah, of which Jerusalem was the capital, and that of Israel, From the earliest periods of history, it appears that of which Samaria was the capital. North of these captives taken in war were considered as lawful plunterritories were the flourishing commercial cities of der, to be used for the benefit, or even the caprice, of Phoenicia,- Tyre and Sidon; and in the immediate the captors. They were often killed or tortured in vicinity was the populous kingdom of Syria, Damascus, revenge of resistance they had made to their conthe metropolis being one of the great centres of Asi- querors, or for the amusement which their cries and Asia Minor was thickly peopled, and agonies afforded. Some had their tongues cut out, and several considerable kingdoms were flourishing there. thus made mutes, were employed as servants; others To the north of Assyria was Armenia, already a pop- were maimed, and accordingly a supply of eunuchs ulous country, and beyond were the extensive regions for the palace was obtained; others still had their of the fierce and barbarous Scythians. To the east of Assyria were the territories of Media and Persia, and still further, India and China, with many intermediate territories, all of which were, at this period, more or less thickly inhabited. atic commerce. While such was the condition of the nations in the central and southern portions of Asia, Egypt was in the height of its power, and even surpassed Assyria in learning and the arts. Carthage had begun its maritime career, and carried its navigation, by way of the Straits of Gibraltar, into the Atlantic. In Europe, Greece was advancing towards the brightest era of its existence; and Rome, the future queen of the world, was raising its walls along the banks of the Tiber. Such was the course of events during the period of somewhat more than two centuries, in which the second Assyrian empire flourished. We now return to the thread of our narrative. How long a time elapsed between the overthrow of Sardanapalus and the accession of Pul seems uncertain. Whether Arbaces* reigned for a time over the new kingdom of Assyria, which had been mainly founded by him, or whether his sovereignty was re eigns. eyes put out, and were left to their fate; often a whole tribe or nation was transplanted to another country — their towns and cities being laid waste and desolate. Kings, princes and nobles, decorated the triumphal processions of conquerors. These customs, with slight modifications, were common as well among the Assyrians, as the ancient Jews, Egyptians and Greeks. During the second period of Assyrian history, the people of the two kingdoms of the Hebrews -Judah and Israel—suffered from successive conquests and captivities, which will be duly noticed in the history of that people. It is evident from these facts, that in the remote ages of which we write, the claims of humanity, so familiar now, were unknown, or at least unacknowl edged. That golden rule which makes every human being our neighbor, and institutes an equality of rights between man and man, had not been promulgated. The history of the good Samaritan had not yet been placed before the world, as an authoritative example. Although mankind have had the advantage of these lights for eighteen centuries, there are still many lingering traces of that ancient barbarism which deemed it lawful for one race to reduce another to captivity, and to use the captive as convenience might suggest. So slow and difficult is the march of true civilization! nasty. The first closed by Sardanapalus, about 888 B. C., and followed by Arbaces and the Median kings; and the second commencing about 800 or 775 B. C., and subsisting along with the Median race. But as Clesias and Herodotus both profess to have drawn from Pul was succeeded, 747 B. C., by his eldest son, original sources, and yet differ from each other in important particu- Tiglath Pileser, on the throne of Assyria; at the lars, as much as if they were speaking of different states; and as there is no ground whatever for distrusting the accounts contained in the same time, his younger son, Nabonassar, became King Old Testament, it would seem preferable, on every critical, as well of Babylon, which, at this period, it seems, was subas other ground, to make the biblical accounts the foundation of ject to Assyria, or, at least, tributary to it. Tiglath the Assyrian history.-Robinson's Notes to Calmet's Dictionary. * Some authors suppose that Assyria continued still to be a great Pileser greatly extended the boundaries of his kingempire, of which Media and Babylonia were provinces. In this dom, by various conquests. He marched against Syview, Arhaces is represented as King of Assyria, and Belesis, gov-ria, took its capital, Damascus, and killed Rezin, the of Arhaces was Mandauces, supposed to be the same as Pul, above king. The kingdom of Damascus, or Syria, was ter minated, and the people transferred to Kir, in Media. ernor of Babylonia, not an independent sovereign. The sucessor noticed. SECOND ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. During this reign, the King of Judah was obliged to pay heavy tribute and formally acknowledge himself a vassal of the Assyrian empire. 77 Senacherib returned to Jerusalem; but, like a conqueror of modern times, whose army perished in the snows of Russia-thus furnishing a striking parallel Salamanezer, called Enemesser in the book of Tobit, to the destinies of the Assyrian hosts,-he was not succeeded Tiglath Pileser, about 725 B. C. He marched softened by misfortune. On the contrary, he seemed against Hosea, the King of Israel, who had sought to filled with spite and revenge, which he wreaked on throw off the Assyrian yoke, and to aid in this object, his subjects, and especially on the captive Jews and had formed an alliance with the King of Egypt. The Israelites, whom he wantonly caused to be slaughtered immense army of the Assyrians, however, soon overran At last, he was killed by two of his sons, before the the country of the Israelites, and Hosea was obliged to altar of the god Nisroch, at which he was kneeling. shut himself up in his capital of Samaria. Here, for Esarhaddon, another son of Senacherib, succeeded three years, he made a valorous defence; but at last him in 710 B. C. The Medes and Babylonians, who, he was taken, put in irons, and kept in prison during it appears, had become tributary to Assyria took advanthe rest of his life. His efforts to liberate his country tage of the weakened state of the Assyrians, caused not only proved vain, but resulted in its ruin. The by the misfortunes of Senacherib, to assert their indepeople of the ten tribes were carried into captivity, and pendence. The new king made war on both; he was here history loses sight of them forever. Hosea was unsuccessful against Media, but he compelled Babythe last sovereign of Israel; and this kingdom, which lon to acknowledge his supremacy. He conquered had existed distinct from Judah for 250 years, was Syria, and reduced Judah, whose king, Manasseh, he thus finally terminated. The latter endured for a carried in chains to Babylon, where he now held his century and a half, when it fell a prey to Nebuchad-court. After a successful reign of forty-three years, nezzar. he was succeeded by Saosducheus, 667 B. C. Salmanezer, after the conquest of Israel, subdued This king was followed by his son Chyniladan, the the cities of Phoenicia, with the exception of Tyre, Nabuchodonoser of the book of Judith, 647 B. C. He which he was unable to capture, though he besieged was ambitious and warlike; and raising a large army, it for five years. He was succeeded by Senacherib, in he marched against the Medes. He defeated them in 714 B. C. This monarch marched against Hezekiah, battle, and taking their fugitive king, Phraortes,—the King of Judah, who had refused to pay the stipulated Arphaxad of Scripture, he shamefully put him to tribute. Encouraged by the prophet Isaiah, Hezekiah death. Returning to Nineveh, now the capital, and refused to deliver up Jerusalem. In the mean time, the armies of Egypt and Ethiopia were coming against Senacherib. The latter marched to meet them, and gave them battle. He defeated their armies, and pursued them into their own countries, which he ravaged and despoiled, bearing away immense treasures. Returning victorious, he again marched upon Jerusalem. In his extremity, Hezekiah entreated the Lord, and an answer was returned by the prophet Isaiah: "The King of Assyria shall not come into this city, nor shoot an arrow there, nor come before it with shield, nor raise a bank against it. By the way that he came, by the same shall he return." And such was the event. That very night, the camp of Senacherib was smitten with pestilence, and 185,000 of his men perished. "The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, "Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green, "For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast, "And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide, "And there lay the rider, distorted and pale, in all its glory, he feasted his victorious troops for one hundred and twenty days. He next sent his general, Holofernes, to punish the tributary states who had refused to aid in his expedition against Media. Having partly fulfilled his mission, Holofernes proceeded against the Jews; and having invested the town of Bethalia, he perished by the hand of Judith, who had devoted herself to the salvation of her country. The Assyrian troops fled in dismay, being pursued by their enemies with great slaughter. This monarch was succeeded by Sarac, 636 B. C. He was a weak prince, and this circumstance seems to have suggested to Nabopolasser, the ambitious governor of Babylon, the scheme which followed. He united with Cyaxares the Mede, who, in revenge for his father's death, had made war on the Assyrians, and defeated their army in a pitched battle. The combined Medes and Babylonians now besieged Nineveh, but their designs were interrupted by an inroad of the Scythians into Media. After a long struggle, in which these people were nearly annihilated, Sarac returned to the attack on Nineveh, and by the aid of the Babylonian king, it was burned and razed to the ground, 606 B. C. Thus the second Assyrian kingdom perished, and the mighty drama of its kings and its princes was closed forever. The destruction of Nineveh was fatal and final. Two centuries after, the people around could not tell the site of the city. The country is now inhabited by barbarous bands of Arabs and Chaldeans, who plunder each other, and are plundered by their chiefs in turn. For twenty-five hundred years the wrecks of the ancient city have been buried in accumulating rubbish, affording a ghastly spectacle of ruin and desolation. Recent excavations have happily brought to light some interesting vestiges of the ancient palaces, of which we shall give an account in a subsequent chap ter. CHAPTER XLIII. immediate successors of this king performed no actions worthy of record. Merodach Baladin, who came to the throne 721 B. C., is mentioned in the Bible as Belesis-Nebuchadnezzar-Belshazzar-End having written letters to Hezekiah, King of Judah, of the Babylonian Empire. congratulating him on his recovery from illness. Omitting the names of several kings, we come to Nabopolassar, whose reign began about 626 B.C He was an ambitious monarch, and extended his dominions to the shores of the Mediterranean. He united with the King of Media against Assyria, and that empire was overthrown,-its ancient capital, Nineveh, being utterly destroyed. BABYLONIA, which we have already described as lying on both sides of the Euphrates towards its mouth, was also called Chaldea. In this territory was the plain of Shinar, and here, at a very early date, was a population sufficient to undertake the building of Babel. It is probable, therefore, that even before the founding of the Assyrian empire by Ashur-who Pharaoh Necho, King of Egypt, took advantage of went thither after the confusion of tongues-there some civil dissensions in Babylonia, to invade the kingwas an established government in Babylonia, founded dom. He induced the governors of Phoenicia and Coloby Nimrod, the mighty hunter of Scripture. Hence, Syria to revolt, but Nabopolassar made vigorous ensome authors suppose that a kingdom originated here deavors to regain his authority in these countries. In as early as 2236 B. C. It is also conjectured that this enterprize, he was materially assisted by his son Babylon, its capital, was built upon the very spot Nebuchadnezzar, who subsequently raised the monarwhere the tower of Babel was begun. It would chy to the highest pitch of greatness. He gained a appear that this country soon became subject to brilliant victory over the Egyptian king at CarcheAssyria, and continuing to be a mere province of that mish, and was about to follow up his success by invadkingdom, its fame was overshadowed and almost ing Egypt, when he was recalled to Babylon by his forgotten in the lapse of centuries. Nineveh sur- father's death, whom he succeeded 604 B. C. passed even Babylon, until Semiramis rebuilt the latter on a scale of such grandeur and magnificence as to cast its former glory into the shade. Nebuchadnezzar conquered the kingdom of Judah, and carried several of its princes away to Babylon as prisoners, or hostages. Among these was the prophet Daniel. Soon after this event, a horde of Tartars from the north, who were then known by the name of Scythians, invaded the Babylonian territories, and the Jews embraced this opportunity of asserting their Nebuchadnezzar marched against them with an overwhelming force. Jerusalem was taken and plundered; its king slain, his son sent a prisoner to Babylon, and a tributary king appointed by the conqueror. But the date at which the Babylonian Empire, generally recognized in history, began its career is that of 876 B. C., when Belesis, who had assisted in the overthrow of Assyria, took this portion of its territory as his share of the plunder. Whether he was an in- independence. dependent sovereign, or tributary to Arbaces as chief ruler of the several portions of the dismembered Assyrian empire, is matter of doubt. After the lapse of more than a century we find Nabonassar upon the throne. During his reign, an exact method of reckoning time was introduced, by adopting the Egyptian solar year; and its starting point,-767 B. C.,is known as the Era of Nabonassar. The three The Jews again revolted, relying on the promised aid of the Egyptians, but were once more subdued, and treated with barbarous cruelty. Their city was made desolate, their lands laid waste, and the greater part TRADE AND COMMERCE OF THE ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 79 The of the inhabitants were carried into captivity. Nebu- and found wanting! The enemy entered the city, and chadnezzar then pursued his career of conquest into guided by the lights that gleamed from the chambers Phoenicia, which he completely subdued; after which, of revelry, penetrated into the very heart of Babylon, he invaded Egypt, and ravaged all the northern part and attacked the guards before the palace. of that country. On his return from this expedition, guests within, startled by the clash of arms, flung the he erected a golden statue in the plain of Dura, com- gates open to learn the cause of the tumult, and thus manding all his subjects to fall down and worship it, gave admission to the enemy. Belshazzar, in this as we are informed in the book of the prophet Daniel. hour of despair, behaved in a manner suited to his Towards the close of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar lofty station and illustrious descent. He drew his was punished for his impiety by a fit of madness, and sword, and at the head of a few friends, attempted to the sacred writer informs us that under this infliction drive back the enemy. But his endeavors were vain ; he "did eat grass as an ox, and his body was wet overpowered by numbers, he was slain in his own with the dews of heaven till his hairs were grown like hall, B. C. 536. With Belshazzar fell the Babylonian eagles' feathers, and his nails like birds' claws." He empire, and Darius the Mede became its ruler for a was succeeded on the throne, 561 B. C., by the prince short space, when Cyrus succeeded him. named in Scripture Evil Merodach, and who was shortly afterwards murdered by his brother-in-law, Neriglissar. The young prince Belshazzar was saved from the attempts of the conspirators, and continued CHAPTER XLIV. several years in obscurity, but at length he was placed General Views-Trade and Commerce of the on the throne of his father. Assyrians and Babylonians. There is much confusion in this part of Baby- FROM the preceding sketch, it appears that, although lonian history, and we should in vain attempt to Assyria and Babylonia originated as distinct monarconstruct any clear and connected narrative of the chies, yet, at an early date, they were blended in one events, for many years. It is said that during the kingdom, and at different periods were under one govyouth of Belshazzar, the administration of the king-ernment. Lying contiguous to each other, the climate dom was confided to Queen Nitocris. She was a of both was nearly the same, and therefore we may woman of talent and enterprise, and put a finishing regard them as one people, in a general view of their hand to many great public works which had been character and institutions. It is proper, however, to begun by Nebuchadnezzar. The great bridge across make a distinction between the two eras of their civilithe Euphrates, in the centre of Babylon, and the zation, corresponding to that of their history. The retunnel under the river, are enumerated among the cent discoveries at Nineveh have not only served to works of her reign. This last undertaking was accomplished by turning the waters of the river into a new channel, during the progress of the work, by means of an artificial lake and canal. This celebrated queen was daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, and mother of Belshazzar. She was buried in a wall over one of the hundred gateways of Babylon. confirm the opinion, now generally adopted, that there was a first and second Assyrian empire, but they have, at the same time, thrown great light upon the manners and customs of the more ancient periods of Assyrian history. We shall, accordingly, notice first the state of society in the latter period, when Babylon may be taken as the representative of Assyrian civilization, and afterwards give a sketch of society in the ancient empire, as exhibited by the vestiges of Nineveh, its metropolis. When Belshazzar assumed the reins of government, he deserted the prudent line of policy by which Nitocris had delayed the downfall of the tottering empire. He abandoned himself to licentious pleasures, and During the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, and for a provoked the hostilities of the warlike Medes. In the considerable period before and after, the city of Babprogress of this war, Babylon was besieged by Cyaxa-ylon appears to have been not only the seat of an imres, otherwise called Darius, King of the Medes, joined perial court, and a station for a vast garrison, but the by Cyrus, his nephew, who was King of Persia. The emporium of an immense commerce. The Babylolatter had already signalized himself as a warrior, and he advanced against the Babylonians with a large army, and all the pomp of a conqueror. In the siege which followed, he seems to have had the chief command. nians were both an ingenious and an industrious nation, and the clothes which they wore were the product of their own art and labor. They dressed in robes of fine linen, descending to their feet. WoolBelshazzar, confiding in the strength of the walls len tunics were also worn, and these were generally of Babylon, laughed his enemies to scorn; and while covered with a white cloak. Their heads were covthey were still urging the attack, the infatuated ered with turbans, or mitres of linen, finely plaited. monarch made a great feast in honor of the success The floors of their houses were covered with double which he expected in driving the assailants from the and triple carpets, of the brightest colors; and the city. Cyrus, learning this, took advantage of the walls were hung with the beautiful cloths called Sinfolly and self-confidence of the Babylonians. He sent dones, which the eastern kings esteemed so highly as a body of men to open the canal leading to the lake to select them for their robes of state. The looms of which had been dug by Nitocris, and gave orders to Babylon, and of the neighboring town of Borsippa, his army, as soon as the water should be drawn from which owed its prosperity to its manufactures, supthe bed of the river into this lake, to march into the plied the kingdom with the finest veils and hangcity under the walls, through the deserted channel. ings, together with various articles of dress and furIn the height of their midnight feast, the Baby-niture composed of cotton, linen, or woollen. lonian revellers were astounded by the supernatural In the numerous articles consumed by the Babylohand-writing on the wall, described by the prophet nians, we find a variety of commodities produced in Daniel, which announced the impending destruction countries far remote from their own. The vast quanof the empire: Thou hast been weighed in the balance tities of spices and aromatics wasted in private luxury, |