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CONQUEST OF EGYPT BY ALEXANDER.

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observances from the cradle to the grave; representing for ages, should now be able to add their indubitable with equal fidelity the usages of the palace and the testimony to the truth of that book which we hold cottage; the king surrounded by the pomp of state, to be the Word of God! and the peasant employed in the humblest labors of the field. In the very first mention of Egypt, we shall find the scriptural narrative singularly illustrated and confirmed by the monuments.

"And there was a famine in the land- of Canaan and Abram went down into Egypt to sojourn there, for the famine was grievous in the land. And it came to pass, when he was come near to enter into Egypt, that he said unto Sarai his wife, Behold now, I know that thou art a fair woman to look upon; therefore it shall come to pass, when the Egyptians shall see thee, that they shall say, This is his wife; and they will kill me, but they will save thee alive. Say, I pray thee, thou art my sister, that it may be well with me for thy sake; and my soul shall live because of thee. And it came to pass, that, when Abram was come into Egypt, the Egyptians beheld the woman that she was very fair. The princes also of Pharaoh saw her, and commended her before Pharaoh, and the woman was taken into Pharaoh's house." (Gen. xii. 10-15.)

Now let it be remembered that at present the custom for the Egyptian women, as well as those of other Eastern countries, is to veil their faces somewhat in the manner here represented. Why, then, should Abram have been so anxious because the princes of Pharaoh's house would see his wife Sarai? How, indeed, could they see her face, and discover that she was handsome, had she been veiled, according to the custom of the country now? The question is answered by the monuments, for here is a representation of the manner in which a woman was dressed in Egypt in ancient times.

It seems, therefore, that they exposed their faces; and thus the Scripture story is shown to be agreeable to the manners and customs of the country at the date to which the story refers. It is impossible to bring a more striking-though unexpected-proof of the antiquity and minute accuracy of the Bible record than this.

The period at which the custom of veiling the faces of women was introduced into Egypt was probably about five hundred years before Christ, when Cambyses, king of Persia, became master of that country. It was but natural that the conquered nation should adopt the fashions of the conquering one, particularly as at this period Persia was an empire of great wealth and power, and likely to give laws not only in respect to government, but in respect to manners also. The probability, therefore, that the Bible record was made previous to this event, even had we no other testimony, is very strong, from the fact that it relates in the story of Abram and his wife,-an account which implies a fashion that probably never existed in Egypt after the conquests of Cambyses. How wonderful it is, that these mute monuments, after slumbering in silence

CHAPTER CCLXXXV.

332 B. C. to A. D. 1798.

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THE year 332 found Alexander of Macedon at the gates of Egypt. Tyre and Gaza had fallen before him, and Jerusalem had been passed without the shedding of blood. Nothing remained to check his march into Egypt; and in seven days the army arrived from Gaza at Pelusium, the frontier town of Egypt on the east. The Persian garrison yielded without striking a blow, foreseeing that resistance would be useless; and the whole country soon passed under the dominion of the Greeks. In fact, the Persians were the only inhabitants of Egypt who would have lifted a hand in opposition to Alexander; for the Egyptians were so galled by the Persian sway, and by the cruelties inflicted on the land by Cambyses, Ochus, and his successors, that the Greeks were welcomed as deliverers, and the conqueror of the world was received with open arms by the legitimate possessors of the country. Since the time of Psammeticus, also, a large number of Greeks had made Egypt their home, and, being liberal and accommodating in religious and political matters, the Egyptians had learned to look upon them more as allies than as foreigners. Alexander marched from Pelusium to Heliopolis, the sacred city, renowned for its temples and obelisks; from thence he went to Memphis, the capital of Egypt, and then, turning his steps northward, founded Alexandria, which became one of the most famous cities of ancient times. In order to confirm his power, he restored the former customs and religious rites of the Egyptians, which the Persians had so wantonly repressed; and, having thus enlisted in his favor the feelings of the entire nation, and having, furthermore, established the government on a wise and liberal footing, he and his army recommenced their march, and went into Assyria, where Darius was awaiting his approach.

On the death of Alexander, (323 B. C.,) his possessions were divided, and Egypt fell to the lot of Ptolemæus Lagi, one of his generals. He was the founder of a line of Greco-Egyptian kings, who held the government of the country during a period of two hundred and ninety years. The first three of the line were, in particular, the patrons of learning. Ptolemy Lagus did much towards embellishing Alexandria, and founded the library of that city. He established a museum or university, which afterwards became the centre of the civilization of the world. Philosophers and men of learning were invited to seek shelter in the tranquil land of Egypt from the storms which filled the horizon on every other side. He was succeeded by his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. Under his auspices, the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek was made, for the benefit of the Jews who had settled in Egypt. The Ptolemaic

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CLEOPATRA APPEARS BEFORE ANTONY.

line extended through the following princes, to the throne together for a time; but, by a succession of inconquest by the Romans, in 30 B. C...

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trigues, Cleopatra was deprived of all authority in the government, the whole of which was vested in the person of her brother and husband. Julius Cæsar, who came to Alexandria at this period, saw her, was captivated by her charms, and seconded her claims to the throne, which were ultimately acknowledged. In a revolt which followed, her husband lost his life, and Cæsar proclaimed her queen of Egypt. She was compelled to take her younger brother, only eleven years old, as her husband and colleague in the government. She caused him to be poisoned, however, at the age of fourteen, and remained sole possessor of the throne. When Cæsar was killed, she showed her regard for his memory by refusing to join the party of his as

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sassins, though threatened with death by Cassius unless she lent them her support. She even took part against them, and sailed with a fleet to the assistance of the triumvirs, but was forced back to Egypt by a storm. After the battle of Philippi, Mark Antony summoned Cleopatra to appear before him at Tarsus, in Cilicia, on the pretext that she had furnished supplies to Cassius. She prepared for the interview in a manner suitable to the most beautiful queen of the East, who was to present herself before the Roman conqueror. Laden with the most magnificent offerings and presents of all kinds, she sailed, with her fleet, to the mouth of the Cydnus. History seems to have left her here, and the wand of the poet to have taken the place of the pen of the historian. Her voyage along the banks of the Cydnus has furnished a theme for the most florid description to the romancers of all ages, and, in the coloring of Shakspeare, it seems more like an Oriental vision than a reality.

"The barge she sat in like a burnished throne Burned on the water: the poop was beaten gold; Purple the sails, and so perfumed, that

The winds were lovesick with them: the oars were silver, Which to the tune of flutes kept stroke."

"For her own person,

It beggared all description: she did lie
In her pavilion, (cloth of gold, of tissue,)
O'erpicturing that Venus where we see
The fancy outwork nature. On each side her

Stood pretty, dimpled boys, like smiling Cupids,
With diverse-colored fans, whose wind did seem
To glow the delicate cheeks which they did cool."
"At the helm

A seeming mermaid steers; the silken tackle
Swells with the touches of those flower-soft hands
That yarely frame the office. From the barge
A strange, invisible perfume hits the sense
Of the adjacent wharfs. The city cast
Her people out upon her; and Antony,
Enthroned in the market-place, did sit alone."

As Cleopatra had anticipated, Antony saw, and was captivated. He followed her to Alexandria, where he remained in her company through the winter that followed. He then returned to Rome, where, for political reasons, he married Octavia, the sister of Augustus then called Octavius. When the civil war between Antony and Octavius broke out, Cleopatra joined the former with a fleet of sixty ships. In the sea fight of Actium, however, her courage was unequal to the conflict, and, as the danger approached, she fled with the whole squadron, and Antony," whose heart was to her rudder tied by the string," steered after her, leaving his hope of victory and the honor of his name behind him. Octavius sent word to Cleopatra that, on condition of her putting Antony to death, or banishing him from her kingdom, she might expect every favor at his hands. She refused, and Octavius marched against Alexandria, which fell before his arms after a slight

MONACHISM-DOMINION OF THE KHALIFS.

resistance, in which Antony's fleet, cavalry, and infantry successively deserted him, and went over to Octavius. Antony fell upon his own sword; and Cleopatra died from the bite of an asp, which she applied to her arm, rather than grace the triumph of Octavius. Cleopatra was the last of the line of the Ptolemies, and with her death closed the Greco-Egyptian dynasty. Egypt became a Roman province, and the immense treasures of its royal palace fell into the hands of Octavius, who now became emperor of Rome.

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For six hundred and seventy years Egypt remained in the hands of the Romans, quietly submitting to the law of necessity. It continued to be the "granary of Rome," and, for seven centuries, a portion of its full harvests crossed the Mediterranean, to feed the millions who ranged themselves under the banner of the Empire. Alexandria preserved its commercial importance, and, for a long period, continued to be one of the most wealthy and busy cities in the world. The peace of the Roman dominion in Asia and

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even during the coldest winter nights. Such was the origin of Monachism, which still exists, though with the revival of science, and the consequent diffusion of more liberal views, the stricter kinds of anchorites have gradually disappeared. At the present day, few men retire to a closer seclusion than that of a convent.

Africa was secured by eight legions of the standing were not enough, these deluded fanatics passed their army maintained in this quarter. The Christian time in ingenious self-torture perpetual silence, religion, during this period, gradually gained a foot-heavy chains, severe flagellations, and loud hymns, ing in the country, and was accompanied by the same enthusiasm, sectarianism, and mental gloom, which, in the earlier history of Egypt, had accompanied the pagan mysteries. It was here that anchorites and monks had their origin. The sternness of a sombre religion in every part of the East threw over life a melancholy shade; and, at the period of Christ's coming, it was more than ever considered a religious act to quit the busy world, and even to add bodily pain to the gloom of solitude. At the commencement of the Christian era, when civil war and battles by land and sea were every-day occurrences, retirement and religious meditation were only the more agreeable to men of contemplative minds. This spirit, which still prevails in the East, passed over, with many other Oriental ideas and doctrines, to the early Christians, and it was in Egypt, during the Roman sway, that they existed in the greatest number. Persecution soon following under the emperor Decius, every cave or hollow tree held its recluse; and in every solitary wild wandered and prayed the hermit or the anchorite. Still later, a sect of anchorites was founded in Syria, from whence their doctrines spread into Egypt. Simeon Stylites was the father of the sect, and a most devoted observer of its tenets. He passed thirty years on the top of a column, without changing his position, and finally died there. Somewhat in the spirit of derision, his followers were called pillar saints, holy birds, and aërial martyrs. As if seclusion

After the division of the great Roman empire, in the time of Theodosius, into the Western and Eastern empires, Egypt became a province of the latter, and sunk deeper and still deeper in barbarism and weakness. To the spread of the Saracenic empire it could offer no resistance, and, with the exception of Alexandria, which made a vigorous defence, (A. D. 640,) fell an easy prey to the Mahometan invaders. In our history of the Saracens, we have given a full account of the victories of Amrou, the general who led the forces of Omar through the Egyptian campaign. For six centuries Egypt remained under the khalifs, the administration being conducted by local governors, who, from time to time, rebelled against the authority of the khalifs, thus frequently requiring them to despatch an army to subdue the disaffected province. In 970 commenced the dynasty of the Fatimite khalifs, who reigned over Egypt, independent of, and rivals to, the Abbaside khalifs of Bagdad. This was the period of the wars of the early crusades, in which the Fatimites acted a conspicuous part. During the reign of Dhaher, the seventh khalif of this line, occurred the most dreadful famine which ever visited Egypt. The Fatimite line

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FRENCH INVASION OF EGYPT.

ceased in 1171, when another dynasty succeeded. | walls of Cairo, the dynasty to which he belonged, was Finally, in 1254, occurred the insurrection of the completely overthrown, and Egypt fell into the hands Mamelukes, whe drove the khalifs from the country, of the Turks. Selim was obliged to retain the Mameand seized the government for themselves. lukes, however, as a military aristocracy in Egypt These Mamelukes, or Memlooks-a name derived The twenty-four beys, who governed as many provfrom an Arabic word signifying slaves were origi- inces, were left in possession of their power, though nally prisoners of war, with whom the Asiatic markets subject to a pacha, who was appointed by the Ottoman were glutted by the devastating wars of Zingis Khan. sultan, and who resided at Cairo. Selim even made Many thousands of them were purchased by Malek conditions with the Mamelukes by a regular treaty, in Salech, a distant connection of one of the khalifs of which he acknowledged Egypt as a republic, the nomthe last mentioned dynasty, and were embodied by him inal head of which was to be a sheik, appointed by the into a distinct military organization. There were twelve twenty-four beys. In time of war, the republic was to thousand of them, and their discipline and severe send twelve thousand men to join the Ottoman armies. training rendered them one of the most efficient arms The pacha could be suspended from his functions by of the service. Their very excellence, however, ren- the beys, if he acted arbitrarily, until the pleasure of dered them formidable to their masters; and when, the sultan should be known. The beys were elected by in 1254, they revolted, and killed Tooran Shah, the their own body, and were in reality nearly independent last of the khalifs, they found but little difficulty in of the authority of the sultan, and of his deputy at elevating to the throne one of their own number, El Cairo. This state of things continued till the middle Moez Turkoman. For two hundred and sixty-three of the last century, when, under Ali Bey, who reigned years the Mamelukes held the country under their from 1766 to 1773, the number and wealth of the sway, acknowledging no higher authority than that of Mamelukes gave them such a superiority over the the bravest of their number-whom they elected to the Turks in Egypt, that the sultan was obliged to conform supreme power. They were merciless and rapacious; entirely to their wishes. This aristocracy continued their morals were depraved, and their habits licentious. to reign till the close of the eighteenth century, when Successive chiefs held the power, alternately mak- the invasion of Bonaparte changed the destinies of ing conquests beyond their frontiers, and losing them Egypt. In the battle of the Pyramids, the Mameluke again before a quarter of a century had elapsed. cavalry dashed itself to pieces against the French squares, and their ranks melted away before the destructive fire of European artillery. Of the French in Egypt we shall speak more fully in the next chapter.

In 1517, Selim I., sultan of the Ottomans, marched against the Mamelukes. A battle ensued between his forces and those of Tuman Bey, the Mameluke commander. The latter was defeated and slain under the

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DESTRUCTION OF THE MAMELUKES.

eral hundred sail, among which were thirteen ships of the line, with many smaller vessels of war and transports. In this fleet embarked an army of twenty-eight thousand men, and a body of one hundred men of science, who were furnished with books and the instruments necessary for prosecuting their researches among the antiquities of Egypt. The expedition set sail from Toulon on the 18th of May, 1798. In six weeks it arrived off Alexandria: the following day, the 30th of June, this city capitulated to the advanced French guard, consisting of three thousand men, poorly armed, and harassed with fatigue. Five days after, Rosetta and Damanhur had fallen before Bonaparte, and he had obtained a secure footing in the country. On the 19th of July, his army came in sight of the Pyramids. Their progress, however, was not an easy one: provisions were scarce; the sun poured down its scorching heat; and, as if to inflict upon them the sufferings of Tantalus, they often encamped in immense fields of wheat, while the country around afforded neither mill to grind it nor oven to bake it. But, in spite of these disadvantages, they persevered; and, in the battle of the Pyramids, which occurred on the 27th of July, the Egyptians, with the Mamelukes, were defeated, with the loss of ten thousand men, their artillery, and baggage. Cairo soon fell into the hands of the French, and the country became virtually theirs.

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improved the condition of women, by giving them a certain portion of their husbands' property at their death. He encouraged marriage between his soldiers and the natives, and endeavored to restrain polygamy. The situation of France being such as rendered his presence necessary, he left Egypt in August, 1799, closing his career in that country with the defeat of the Turkish army at Aboukir. General Kleber was left in command; but, being assassinated by one of the natives, the authority devolved upon General Menou. In 1801, the British, who, three years before, had destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir bay, despatched an expedition to restore Egypt to the Turkish power. This was finally successful, and the pacha appointed by the sultan was restored. The Mamelukes, however, who still remained in the country, could never agree with the deputy appointed by the Porte, and continual scenes of bloodshed and treachery took place. In these contests between the rival powers, a poor Albanian youth, named Mehemet Ali, distinguished himself by his bravery and devotion, and gradually obtained such a hold on the affections of the soldiers of the pacha, that this officer became jealous of his power; and, to get rid of him, obtained his appointment as governor of Saloniki. But Mehemet's influence was already so great that the inhabitants of Cairo took arms in his favor, and it was even represented by the ulemas, or "wise men," to the divan of Constantinople, that he alone was able to restore tranquillity to Egypt, which, at this time, the governor, RheBefore renschid Pacha, plundered and oppressed.

While in Egypt, Napoleon caused strict justice to be practised between man and man. He encouraged commerce, and free gave passage to all pilgrims going to and from Mecca. He granted equal rights of in-ceiving the appointment from Constantinople, the people heritance to all the children of the same parents, and had conferred upon Mehemet the office, the duties of

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quet. Here four hundred and seventy were shot, and the rest were decapitated. The scene has been thus described:

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which he discharged, without accepting its external | part of the entire corps, at the citadel, as for a bandignities and emoluments. In 1806, he was confirmed as governor of Egypt by the Porte, and was elevated to the rank of a pacha of three tails. He soon restored the country to order, and accustomed the undisciplined troops to subordination. He reduced the Mamelukes to subjection; but, finding them untractable and treacherous-continually at war one with another, without union for the common good, and leagued together only for evil he formed the design of destroying them. at a single blow. He therefore collected the greater

"They came, according to custom, superbly mounted on the finest horses, and in their richest costume. At a signal given by the pacha, death burst out from all sides. Crossing and enfilading batteries poured forth their flame and iron, and men and horses were at once weltering in their blood. Many precipitated themselves from the summit of the citadel, and

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