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EXTENT and POPULATION. The continent of America VOLCANOES. The Andes form one of the great extends from 74° N. to 54° S. lat., and from 35° to volcanic regions of the globe, containing volcanoes 168° W. long. Its extreme length is about 9,000 miles; through their whole course, from Chili to Russian area, including the islands, 15,000,000 square miles; America. About 20 are known between 46° and 27° population about 50,000,000, comprising 24,000,000 S. lat.; 2 in Peru; 5 in the Equator; 6 in New whites, 10,000,000 Indians, 8,000,000 negroes, and Grenada ; 21 in Guatimala; 8 in Mexico, &c. There the same number of mixed breeds (mulattoes, mesti- is also a volcano in South Shetland, several in the West zoes, zambos, &c.) Of this population about 23,600,- Indies, one in Jan Mayen's Island, several in Iceland, &c. 000 speak the English language; 12,500,000, Spanish; CLIMATE. The climate of North America is known 7,600,000, the Indian languages; 4,600,000, Portu- to be colder and more variable than that of Europe; guese; 1,400,000, French, and 300,000, Danish, Dutch,

and Swedish.

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this is explained by the fact that it has but little land surface within the torrid zone, while it extends far into the frigid zone with a great width. The direction of the mountains being from north to south, a great part of the continent is thus exposed to be swept by the icy winds of the poles; and by means of the snow-capt mountains, the polar climate extends quite to the tropic, where winter and summer seem to struggle face to face. The western coast, being sheltered from the polar winds by the Rocky Mountains, has a milder climate, resembling that of Europe.

In South America the most different climates are brought into close contact, by the physical character of the country; the vegetation of the tropics borders on districts covered with the plants of temperate regions, while above rise in successive layers zones of Alpine vegetation and of perpetual ice.

NATIVES. Two distinct races of men have been found in America, -the Esquimaux, supposed to be of the Mongolian stock, and the American Indian, properly so called.

The former comprises three principal branches; the Karalits or Greenlanders; the eastern Esquimaux, who occupy the north-eastern coast of Labrador; and the western Esquimaux, who roam over the countries bordering on Mackenzie's and Copper Mine rivers,

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&c. The Esquimaux are essentially a maritime peo- | Esquimaux, and although exhibiting great diversities ple, never residing at a great distance from the sea- of physical character, and moral condition, they are coast, and dependent rather upon fishing than the commonly considered as of a kindred race. Accordchase. The dog is their only domestic animal, and their mechanical skill is chiefly confined to the construction of their canoes.

The American Indians, comprising all the other native tribes of America, differ essentially from the

ing to Balbi, more than 438 languages, including upwards of 2,000 dialects, are spoken by 10,000,000 Indians of America. Our limits will not even permit us to give the names of their tribes, which are still numerous, notwithstanding the general decay of the race.

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EXTENT and POPULATION. The Eastern Hemisphere, The direction of the mountain chains corresponds with containing the three great divisions of Europe, Asia, the general direction of the land; those of America and Africa, with Australia, presents the largest mass of extending north and south, and those of the Old land on the face of the globe. Exclusive of the isl- World east and west. This is true of the Alps of ands, it extends from 78 N. lat. to 35 S. lat., and Europe, the Himalaya, Caucasian, and other chains from 17° W. long. to 190 E. long., and has an area of Asia, and seems to be the case with those of Central of about 31,000,000 square miles, with a population of Africa. This remarkable parallelism of the great nearly 800,000,000. Including those parts of Oceania mountainous chains of the globe has led recent geolowhich may be considered as belonging to the Eastern gists to some important conclusions as to their relative Hemisphere, the land area may be estimated at about ages. The highest summits of the eastern continent 34,500,000 square miles, with a population thus dis- are as follows:

tributed:

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MOUNTAINS. The general direction of the land in the eastern and western continents is entirely different; in the latter it is from north to south, but in the former from east to west. The longest straight line that can be drawn on the eastern continent is from

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SOIL. It has been estimated that of 31,000,000 of

Cape Verde to Behring's Strait, 11,000 miles; the long-square miles which compose the eastern continent, the est line drawn over the new continent runs from the productive soil constitutes hardly one third, and a part Strait of Magellan to the Arctic Ocean, 9,000 miles.

* Volcano.

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even of that third is poor; while of the 13,900,000 tent is yet very imperfectly known. Thus the island square miles composing the American continent, of Bourbon belongs to a volcanic region of which 10,000,000 consist of useful soil. A great part of the Madagascar probably forms a part; near the entrance American soil being in warm regions, where it enjoys of the Arabian Gulf is the volcano of Gabel Tor, and the combined advantages of heat and moisture, is also in the province of Cutch, and the adjoining districts of much more productive than the available soil of the Hindostan, violent earthquakes are frequent. Old World. The whole number of volcanic vents in the world VEGETATION. The number of vegetable species at has been estimated at 518, many of which only emit present known is, according to Humboldt, about smoke, and many are quiescent. They are distributed 44,000, of which, 6,000 are cryptogamous, and 38,000 as follows: phanerogamous; according to the same philosopher, who has paid particular attention to the geography of plants, the latter are distributed as follows:

In Asia,

In Europe,

In Africa,

In Oceania,

In America,

6,500

7,000

3,000

5.000

17,000

It is also observable, that in the Old World large tracts are often wholly occupied by a single species of social plants, to the exclusion of all others, but that a given space in the New World contains a greater diversity of vegetable forms.

VOLCANIC REGIONS. There are certain vast regions in the eastern continent, in which active volcanic vents are distributed at intervals, and most commonly arranged in a linear direction, Throughout the intermediate spaces, there is abundant evidence that the subterranean fire is continuously at work; for the ground is convulsed from time to time by earthquakes, the soil disengages gaseous vapors, and springs of a high temperature, and impregnated with the same matter as that discharged by the eruptions of the volcanoes, frequently occur.

Europe,
Asia,
Africa,
America,
Oceania,

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100

31

202

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ARCTIC REGIONS. In the Arctic Ocean navigators have penetrated to 84° 30' N. lat., and a Russian hunting station has been established on Spitzbergen, of the known world. in lat. 80°, which is the most northerly inhabited spot Nova Zembla, discovered by Dutch in 1596; Greenland, probably an island; Iceland; Willoughby in 1553; Spitzbergen, discovered by the the North Georgian Islands, lying on the north of Barrow's Straits, and numerous islands on the south of the same straits, are the principal masses of land in these territories.

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1. The volcanic region from the Aleutian Isles to the Moluccas extends in a continuous line, first in an easterly direction for about 1,000 miles, and then southwards, through a space of between 60° and 70° of latitude, to the Moluccas, when it branches off in different directions, to the east and north-west. It thus extends through the Aleutian Islands, Kamtschatka, the Kurile, Japanese, and Philippine Isles, and is pro- These dreary regions, where no tree casts a shade, longed through the north-eastern extremity of Celebes, and of which mosses and some stunted shrubs are by Ternate and Tidore, to the Moluccas. Here a the only vegetation, are the abode of winter, the seat great transverse line runs from east to west; on the of fogs, frosts, and storms. It begins to snow as west, passing through the whole of Java, which contains 38 large volcanic mountains, and Sumatra; on the east, stretching through Borneo, Celebes, Banda, New Guinea, New Britain, and spreading out over a great part of Polynesia. The whole of the equatorial Pacific is one vast theatre of volcanic action, and many of its archipelagoes are composed of volcanic rocks, with active vents here and there interposed.

2. The other great volcanic region of the eastern hemisphere extends from the central regions of Asia, on the east of the Caspian, to the Azores, a distance of about 4,000 miles, and reaching from the 35th to the 45th degree of latitude. Its northern boundaries are, the Caucasus, the Carpathian and Alpine systems, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees; its southern limits comprise part of the Arabian desert, and of Northern Africa. Throughout the whole of this vast area, we may trace numerous points of volcanic eruptions, hot springs, gaseous emanations, &c.; and few tracts of any considerable extent have been entirely exempt from earthquakes during the last 3,000 years.

3. Beside these great continuous spaces of volcanoes, there are in the eastern hemisphere several disconnected volcanic groups, of which the geographical ex

early as August, and during the month of September the whole ground is covered to the depth of several feet; from this time till toward June everything is bound in fetters of ice. In May the snow begins to dissolve, and the ice breaks up, but the air is now darkened by dense fogs, until for a few weeks in July and August the sun shines out with great power.

The sun does not appear above the horizon for about four months, although even in the depth of winter the light of day does not entirely abandon the miserable tenants of these regions, and the fitful, but brilliant illumination of the Aurora Borealis - Northern Morning-relieves the horrors of the scene.

The only animals which can resist the cold, and procure subsistence in this climate, are the reindeer, which advances as far north as 80°, but migrates to the south in October; the great white or polar bear, some species of wolves and foxes, &c. The seas are crowded with water-birds, during the warm months, and the whale, the seal, and the movse or walrus, attract fishermen in pursuit of their fat, fur, or tusks. The right whale, or Greenland whale, (mysticetus,) is chiefly pursued in the Arctic, and the cachalot, or spermaceti whale, in the Antarctic seas.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

ANTARCTIC REGIONS. Until the middle of the last little isles of Peter and Alexander, about lat. 70°, century, geographers and naturalists, reasoning from discovered in 1821, are the Ultima Thule of the Other islands known here are New South Shetland, the unequal distribution of land in the two hemi- Antarctic seas. spheres, maintained the existence of a continent round the south pole, to which they gave the name of South- (610-63° lat.,) discovered by Williams in 1819; ern Continent, Australia or Magellanica, and which South Georgia, inaccessible on account of ice for a These they conceived necessary to counterbalance the mass great part of the year, (54° 30′ lat.,) discovered in of Arctic land. The voyages of Cook and succeed- 1675; Southern Orkneys, 50° W. long., 60° 45' S. ing navigators apparently refuted this supposition; lat., discovered by Weddel in 1822, &c. but in 1840, an American exploring expedition, com- bleak regions are visited only by whalers and seal manded by Captain Wilkes, discovered a vast ex- ships. tent of land, which they named the Antarctic Continent. It is between the Antarctic Circle and 70° S. lat. The Magellanic Archipelago, or the islands of Terra del Fuego, are the most southerly part of the globe inhabited by man; the highest southern latitude reached by navigators is lat. 74° 15', and the

The voyages of other navigators have made us acquainted with large tracts of land, the limits and extent of which are as yet unknown; Enderby's Land, discovered by Captain Biscoe in 1831, is in lat. 67° S., lon. 50° E., and Graham's Land is in about the same lat. in the meridian of 60°-70° W.

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Population of the Globe. Very different estimates PHYSICAL Geography regards the earth as consti- | tuted by its Creator; Political Geography considers have been formed of the entire population of the globe; mankind in their social capacity, including their division into states and nations, with their various institutions of government, laws, and religion; including, also, the state of society in respect to civilization. The distribution of mankind into nations will be considered successively, as we treat of the several quarters of the globe, and the general condition of each will be duly presented, in the course of our work.

Languages. Some writers have endeavored to ar-
range the human tribes into classes or families, accord-
ing to the relations of their languages; comprising
under the name of family those nations whose lan-
Thus the Ger-
guages are closely connected in grammatical structure,
or in the etymology of their roots.
man, Swedish, Danish, Dutch, and English languages
bear a close resemblance to each other, and the nations
speaking those languages are considered as kindred
tribes, forming a family of nations to which has been
given the name of the Teutonic family. The whole
number of known languages is about 2,000. Of these
fifteen are spoken or understood over a wide extent of
country, or by a great number of individuals, viz: the
Chinese, Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Hebrew, Sanscrit,
German, English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Rus-
sian, Greek, Latin, and Malay.

a regular enumeration has been made only in a few
states, and the whole number of individuals in some
has been calculated from a consideration of the known
number of males, or of men capable of bearing arms,
or of taxable polls, &c. But these data are not pos-
sessed in regard to many countries, and there are
extensive regions of the world quite unknown to us.
writers differ considerably on this subject, some cal-
Accordingly, the most trustworthy estimates of late
culating the number of individuals of the human race
at 1,000 millions, and others at 700 or 800 millions.
Supposing the population of the globe to be a little
over 800 millions, the following table exhibits an
of the world.
estimate of its distribution in the five great divisions

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Pop.

775,000,000

230,000,000
485,000,000
60,000,000

50,000,000 25,000,000

Governments. The most important powers of a government are, that of making laws or the legislative vidual cases, or the judicial power; and that of exe power; that of interpreting or applying them to indi

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POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

cuting them or the executive power. Each of these selfish, or vicious, his government is sure to partake powers is, in many states, confided to a distinct body, of his character, and entail consequent miseries upon and the government is, therefore, divided into three his people. If, on the contrary, the government be independent branches, the legislature, the judiciary, confided to the great mass of the people, or if the and the executive. rulers be directly responsible to them, it is likely to be administered with regard to the interests of the many, and not of the few.

There are various forms of government, differing in their character and appellation, according to the distribution of the powers of government in few or many hands, and the organization of the different branches.

A monarchical government is one in which the supreme power is exercised by a single individual; if the sovereign succeeds his predecessor by right of inheritance, it is a hereditary monarchy; if he is chosen by the nation, or certain privileged classes, or dignitaries, it is an elective monarchy.

When the sovereign has no law but his own will, and can dispose, at pleasure, of the lives, persons, and property of his subjects, the government is a despotism; if the sovereign unites all powers in himself, but is bound by the laws, the government is an absolute monarchy.

When the authority of the head of the state is restricted by the concurrent authority of the representatives of the nation, or of certain privileged classes of the nation, the government is called a limited or constitutional monarchy.

A republican government is one in which the supreme power is in the hands of the whole body of the people, or is exercised by the principal citizens; in the former case, it is called a democracy or democratic republic; in the latter, an aristocracy or aristocratic republic.

States are also differently denominated, according to the title of the sovereign, without regard to the form of government; thus a monarchy is styled an empire, kingdom, duchy, principality, electorate, landgraviate, &c., according as the head of the state bears the title of emperor, king, duke, prince, elector, landgrave, &c.

It is to be remarked, that the form of a government generally determines its spirit also. If power is lodged in the hands of one man, or in the hands of a few men, it is likely to be exercised according to the wishes, interests, and passions of the one or of the few. In a despotic country, if the ruler be of a warlike turn, he is likely to involve his kingdom in wars, and all the miseries which may follow: if he be weak,

Yet, while this is true, it is still to be considered, that even in despotic countries, the character of the people as to intelligence, and the state of the world as to civilization, have a modifying influence upon governments; and thus it is that, in modern times, especially in Europe, we have seen the old despotisms of particular countries administered with a milder spirit, and a more careful regard to the wishes and interests of the people.

Colonies are establishments founded by states, or sometimes by individuals, in foreign countries, for commercial or benevolent purposes; and subject to the authority of the mother-country. Factories are trading stations established in foreign countries. Colonies founded by the transportation of convicted criminals are called penal colonies.

Religion. All the various religious systems professed by different nations may be reduced to two great classes, the one comprising those which acknowledge the existence of a supreme God, the creator, preserver, and ruler of all things; and the other including those, which do not recognize the existence of a Supreme Intelligence.

Fetichism, Sabeism. To the latter class belong the innumerable forms of superstition which prevail among ignorant and barbarous tribes. Fetichism is the worship of fetiches, that is, of various living or inanimate objects of nature; the elements, rivers, fire, trees, and whatever else the credulous savage sees endowed with powers of good or evil, become the objects of gratitude or fear and worship. Different forms of fetichism prevail among the negro tribes of Africa, in Australia, Polynesia, and in some parts of Asia and America. The sacrifice of human victims often forms a part of its horrid rites.

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