powers to adopt any measures he might find necessary for the accomplishment of the desired object, and punish, with the utmost severity, buyers, sellers, and smokers of the drug. The new commissioner arrived at Canton in March, 1839, with a view to execute his trust. But a war was now ready to break out, of a very | tsih-seu, to the office of high commissioner, with full different nature from any which the Celestial Empire had known. It was with a civilized and Christian race that a contest was to be waged, and not with barbarous hordes, whose mode of warfare is familiar to the Chinese. Little, most probably, did they know of the real power and superiority of their enemy, or of their own utter incompetency, by any force of numbers, to meet the military tactics of Europe. The result of the collision must have been a matter of astonishment, as well as of mortification, to the whole Chinese nation. The commercial intercourse between England and China was entirely in the hands of the East India Company till 1833, when the term of their charter expired, and all British subjects were equally at liberty to send out ships to China, for tea and other products of the country. This change afforded ample opportunities for carrying on a contraband trade in opium, the importation of which was prohibited by the imperial government; but the drug was eagerly purchased whenever it could be obtained, and it was therefore supplied by smuggling. The evils of the trade and of the use of the drug by all classes of the Chinese,- more particularly described in a subsequent chapter,* induced the public authorities, with the emperor at their head, to concert measures for the effectual eradication of these evils. After various consultations, Taou-kwang appointed a mandarin of high rank, Lin See the General Views, which close this article. At this time, the British trade was under the control of a superintendent; but he had never been allowed to become a permanent resident at the British factory. The British, as well as several other nations, were permitted to have their factories, consisting of brick or stone edifices, just outside of the walls of Canton, on a very limited space of ground. Here the foreign merchants were permitted to remain at their several establishments only just long enough to transact their business, the very longest term being four months; and if their affairs were not settled by that time, they must leave them in the hands of the Hong merchants, that is, the Chinese individuals who were authorized to trade with these factories, called in their tongue Hong. When the commissioner arrived, it happened that there were several British ships in the river, having somewhat more than twenty thousand chests of opium on board. These he demanded should be given up to be destroyed; and he also required that the owners should bind themselves by a written engagement never to bring any more of the article to China, with the understanding that if they broke their engagement, they would be liable to be punished by the Chinese laws. This demand of Lin was not complied with; upon HOSTILITIES BETWEEN THE CHINESE AND ENGLISH. which all the native servants were withdrawn from the factories, and the factories themselves were surrounded by a body of Chinese and Tartar troops, who guarded the merchants as prisoners, while the Hong merchants were instructed to ascertain the ownership of the chests of opium. In the mean time, Lin, by means of manifestoes, made several efforts to persuade the English to comply with his requirements, seeming, on the whole, to decline measures of severity, provided that his purpose could be effected without them. But, finding his exhortations disregarded, he threatened to put to death the occupants of the factories. In view of this alternative, the British superintendent, Captain Elliott, in order to save the lives of his 451 countrymen, deemed it advisable to surrender the opium. After the landing of the article, which occupied several weeks, the English merchants at the factories were left at liberty to depart. Lin, upon receiving instructions from the emperor, proceeded to destroy the immense mass of opium, "thus manifesting," in the words of the emperor, "to the natives dwelling on the sea-coast and the foreigners of the outside nations, an awful warning." The opium was cast into trenches dug near the sea, where it was quickly decomposed by means of quicklime, salt, and water mixed with it-the mixture running into the sea. This act was consummated in the month of June, 1839. driven back, though their fleet was commanded by their most celebrated admiral, named Quan. The Chinese suffered a great loss - several of their vessels being destroyed in the action. This defeat was astounding to the authorities at Canton, who had placed great dependence on Quan, nor did they dare to send a true account to the emperor. Edicts were now published almost daily, threatening to close the ports forever against the English, if they continued to act in defiance of the imperial demands. Efforts were also made by Lin and his assistants to strengthen their fleet; but nothing of much importance occurred till the month of June, 1840, when an armament arrived from India, under the command of Admiral Elliott, which was added to the British ships already assembled in the bay of Hong Kong. The British merchants had now removed to Macao, | ber of the same year; but the Chinese were soon a Portuguese settlement, where most of their families were residing. While they were in that place, it happened that, in some quarrel between the English and Chinese sailors, one of the latter was killed by an accidental blow. The governor of Canton, as soon as he was apprised of the occurrence, demanded that the assailant should be given up to justice. But this was refused, as the English are not amenable to Chinese law. In retaliation, the governor gave orders that provisions should no longer be supplied to the English at Macao, on which Captain Elliott removed the whole fleet to Hong Kong, a rocky island, about thirty-five miles distant, inhabited at that time chiefly by fishermen, but which has since become an English settlement. In the mean time, arms and men were sent for from India, to protect the lives and property of her majesty's subjects in China. Suspension of trade between the two nations was then ordered by Lin, while the Chinese fleet was preparing to make an attack on the English ships at Hong Kong. The attempt was not made until some time in Novem Upon this reënforcement having been effected, the Chinese boldly attempted to destroy the whole fleet, by sending fireships into the midst of it; but the attempt was abortive, as most of them exploded before they came near enough to do any mischief. As this 452 SUCCESSES OF THE ENGLISH. the surrender of the remaining fort. As the latter wanted three days' time for consulting with Kishen, it was granted. Kishen, in the alarm which he now felt, renewed the negotiation with Captain Elliott, promising to fulfil all the terms of the treaty, provided the Bogue forts were given up. This was accordingly done by the English: the captives were restored to their friends, and the British troops left Chusan, and took up their quarters at Hong Kong, which they now considered their own. They left Chusan the more readily, as, from its unhealthiness to foreigners, it had proved the grave of many of the English while resident there. In the mean time, the emperor, hearing that the English had met with still further success, sent to Ningpo, ordering the massacre of all the prisoners there; but this command, fortunately, was not received until two days after they had been sent away at the solicitation of Kishen. scheme proved to be fruitless, great rewards were of- | day, a message was sent to Admiral Quan, demanding fered to those who should either kill or capture any of the English, or take one of their ships. Numbers of the English were accordingly kidnapped by the Chinese of the lower orders, who were constantly on the watch for any soldier or sailor who was found separated from his companions. It was by these treacherous methods that British soldiers and seamen became prisoners in China, and not by the chances of war. They were confined at Ningpo for some months. It is probable, however, that the Chinese may not have considered themselves as acting a dishonorable part, being unacquainted with the rules of European warfare. The active operations of the British commenced with the capture of Chusan, on the 5th of July, 1840. Chusan is a fine island, about fifty miles in circumference, containing a dense population, and situated near the eastern coast of China, about half way between Canton and Pekin. Tinghaë, the capital, is a large city, in a plain not far from the sea. There were some artificial defences to the place, but, without artillery and soldiers, with which Tinghae was ill supplied, they were of little use. The Chinese were speedily dislodged from them by the invaders. The mandarins, seeing how affairs were likely to terminate, determined to abandon the city, as they were so deficient in the means of defence. In the course of the night, they evacuated it, followed by all the soldiers and the greater part of the inhabitants, who carried away with them much of their property. When the English entered the town the next day, they found it nearly deserted. The emperor's indignation was aroused against his ministers for not beating and expelling the English, or, in other terms, for not performing impossibilities. They were degraded, or otherwise punished. Kishen was particularly obnoxious to his master, because he had held communications with Captain Elliott. "Such proceedings," as the emperor told him in a letter, "pass the bounds of reason. Worthless that you are, what sort of heart is contained in your breast?" The unfortunate offender was speedily arrested, and conducted to Pekin in chains; all the members of his family, according to the laws of China, shared in his disgrace. He was a man of immense possessions, having several palaces, extensive lands, besides many banking houses in several cities. His property in gold, silver, and jewels was also enormous. Among the valuables found in his palaces, were some score of gold watches, two images of horses, and two of lions, made of precious stones, a bedstead composed wholly of tortoise shell, several crystal wash-bowls and basins, and a quantity of rich silks, broadcloths, and furs. Towards the close of the year 1840, an attempt was made, on the part of the Chinese, to recover Chusan by means of negotiation. Kishen, who was appointed imperial high commissioner, was a wily politician, and, promising Hong Kong in the room of Chusan, as also the indemnification of the merchants for their opium, and the release of the prisoners at Ningpo, induced Admiral Elliott to give up Chusan. This affair was transacted upon the Pecho River, where the As Captain Elliott at length came to the conclusion admiral met Kishen on his way to Canton. The British that the Chinese did not intend to make any compenfleet, a portion of which left Chusan, arrived at Toong-sation for the opium, although this was the principal koo Island about the time Kishen reached Canton. This island is not far distant from the Canton River. Nearly at this season, Admiral Elliott, on account of ill health, resigned his command, and it rested with Captain Elliott to negotiate with the Chinese commissioner, who, though not wanting in professions, did not appear very ready to fulfil the engagements which had been entered into with the admiral. The object of Kishen, it is supposed, was only to gain time for hostile purposes, under pretence of making an amicable arrangement. This state of things was put an end toafter a suitable offer of adjustment, within a given time, on the part of the English commander-by an attack on the Bogue forts, which, on the 7th of January, 1841, were taken by storm, the Chinese experiencing a terrible loss of life. The Bogue, or Bocca Tigris, is a narrow pass, about forty-five miles from the mouth of the Canton River, having the strong forts of Amunghoy and Chuenpee on one side, and that of Tycocktow on the other. The forts first taken were those of Chuenpee and Tycocktow. These were bravely defended by the Chinese and Tartar troops, hundreds of whom fell in the action, while many were destroyed by the burning, or blowing up, of seventeen war junks. On the following article of the treaty, he proceeded again to the Bogue, where the Chinese had been busy in strengthening the fortifications. The second attack upon the Bogue forts was on the 26th of February, 1841; all of them were taken, and many lives lost: we pass over the dreadful details of the carnage. Among the Chinese slain was the brave old Admiral Quan, who fell as he was leading his men to repulse the foe. The emperor was exceedingly grieved at the loss of the veteran, and showed his high estimation of him in the rewards and honors bestowed on his family. CAPTURE OF CHINGHAE AND NINGPO. to the command of the armies, and restored Lin to some of his former dignities. He also issued a mandate to the tea-growers to destroy their crops, promising to compensate them for the loss - but this mandate was not fully complied with. Threatenings of degradation and punishment were plentifully given out against the high officers, if they failed to inflict due chastisement upon the barbarians. This impolitic course kept his Celestial Majesty in ignorance of the real character of the war, as every disaster was studiously concealed from him. It was not until circumstances rendered it impossible to conceal the true condition of things, that the emperor awoke to a sense of the danger in which a portion of his vast empire was involved. The Chinese, as early as the first of May, 1841, broke the truce that was made after the second capture of the Bogue foris, by several hostile acts against the shipping on the river. At the same time, the British and Dutch factories were plundered, and partly destroyed, by a large body of troops. It was now resolved to make a direct attack on Canton, which was approached by two different branches of the river, Captain Elliott sailing up the one, and General Sir Hugh Gough the other. The latter attacked and carried four fortresses about two miles from the walls of the city, though gallantly defended by the Tartar troops, with a great loss on the part of the latter. The people of Canton saw with dismay the English flag waving on the forts to which they had trusted for safety. During the day, the firing from the walls of the city was continued; but, at night, all the principal inhabitants departed with their families, taking with them their plate and jewels, and other valuable effects. Canton, without doubt, might have been easily occupied by the British; but Captain Elliott preferred making terms with the authorities of the city, and stayed further proceedings on certain conditions. One of these was the payment of six million dollars for the use of the British government, besides an indemnity on account of the loss at the factories. Scarcely had the Tartar troops marched out of the city, when several thousand men appeared on the heights in hostile array -a circumstance which appeared suspicious to the English; but upon inquiry it was ascertained that a volunteer force of rustics from the surrounding villages had assembled, to the number of twenty-five thousand, to deliver their country from the barbarians. The magistrates of the city, however, prevented their patriotic interference. The despatches to Pekin by Yi-shan, gave an utterly false account of these transactions. Not a word was said about the ransom money, and thus the emperor was kept in profound ignorance of the real state of affairs. When the greater part of the money had been paid, and security given for the remaining amount, the British troops returned to Hong Kong. Captain Elliott, whose arrangements were not generally approved of, was superseded by Sir Henry Pottinger, who arrived at Macao in August, 1841. In the mean time, the mandarins of Canton, paying no regard to the treaty, erected new fortifications in many places along the river, and repaired those that had been injured. Trade proceeded as usual, and opium was again selling along the whole line of the coast. The new British commandant was more decided and peremptory than his predecessor, requiring, in addition to all the other stipulations, that other ports besides 453 that of Canton should be open to British trade, and presenting no other alternative than force, if compliance was not granted. An expedition was immediately undertaken against Amoy, a strongly fortified city and port in an island of the same name, situated about midway between Canton and Chusan. It was surrendered without resistance; but several of the mandarins, in the despair which they felt, committed suicide -a very common practice in China, in times of difficulty and danger. Leaving a garrison at Kolongsoo, a small rocky island forming a part of the fortifications of Amoy, the expedition made its way to Chusan, which was speedily retaken, but not without the sacrifice of many lives on the part of the Chinese, who vainly attempted to defend Tinghaë, the capital. The conquest next achieved by the British was that of Chinghaë, a large and opulent city at the mouth of the Ningpo River, the occupation of which was preparatory to the attack upon Ningpo itself. "The taking of Chinghae was accompanied by some of the most frightful scenes of misery that were witnessed during the whole course of the war. The Chinese having prepared to make a vigorous resistance, the city and citadel were bombarded at once; and as the former was very densely peopled, numbers of the inhabitants were killed, even in their houses. Among the melancholy incidents of that dreadful day was the bereavement of a poor man, whose four children were struck at the same moment by a cannon ball. The distracted father was seen embracing their lifeless bodies in turn, and attempting to throw himself into the river, while his friends were holding him back. These,' remarked an officer, who was an eye-witness of this sad spectacle, are the unavoidable miseries of war;' nor was it, on this occasion, a solitary instance of such calamities." Chinghae was taken on the 10th of October, 1841, and on the next day the fleet proceeded up the river to Ningpo, having left a guard of three hundred men in the captured city. The city of Ningpo, now a place of so much interest and importance to Great Britain, was taken without the least opposition on the part of the inhabitants. Many of these assisted the English to scale the walls, and open the gates, so that the horrors experienced at Chinghae were avoided. An incident highly illustrative of the Chinese character may be mentioned in connection with the British occupation of this place. One day a paper was thrown over the wall addressed to the English, embracing, among other arguments, the following singular appeal to their feelings, on the impropriety of remaining any longer in China: "You have been away from your country long enough; your mothers and sisters must be longing for your return. Go back to your families, for we do not want you here." The Chinese, chagrined at the loss of their important cities, made a desperate effort, in the month of March, 1842, to recover Chinghaë and Ningpo, both of which they entered on the same day, by scaling the walls; but in each case they were repulsed with considerable loss. At the same time, a fleet of junks was sent out against Chusan, but with the same ill success. These measures proceeded from a plan formed by the chiefs of the army, and some of the governors. The next attempt to stop the progress of the invaders was at Tsekee, a town about eleven miles from Ningpo, where the Chinese forces were assembled, forming an extensive encampment. Here, as they attempted to the enemy. The British army, on the 7th of May, left Ningpo, in its progress towards the north, with the intention of reaching Nankin, and eventually Pekin, provided the emperor should persist in his opposition to the terms demanded by the government of Great Britain. On their route between the Ningpo and Nankin Rivers, they came to the town of Chapo, the chief port of communication between China and Japan. The Tartar troops, which covered a chain of hills in the vicinity, fled without making any attempt to prevent the English from entering the city. But it happened that three hundred took refuge in a temple, to which they were pursued, who, under the mistaken idea that, if they surrendered, no quarter would be given, fired on the enemy, killing and wounding several British officers. This act of useless resistance cost the lives of all, with the exception of about forty, who were made prisoners, but were subsequently released. Most of the wives of those who were killed - for the soldiers lived with their families in a part of the city- not knowing where to look for protection, and apprehensive that slavery would be their lot, should they fall into the hands of the foe, threw their helpless infants into the tanks and wells, and killed themselves or each other. The British, however, rescued a number of these poor women from death. the 29th of August, 1842, hig British nation. China The following were the arti " Lasting peace and friendship tween the two empires. millions of dollars, as an ind expenses of the war. The fiv Amoy, Foo-choo-foo, Ningpo, an open to the British, who shall h appointing consuls to reside in the ular tariffs of import and export lished, so that the merchants ma as they have been, to the imposit authorities. The island of Hong forever to the crown of England." the principal articles. A few quently occurred, which somewh continuance of this peace; but suppressed or adjusted without recu resort" of nations. Soon after these events - in the United States despatched a minis succeeded in establishing a treaty ( merce with the government. CHAPTER CCX into China. Soon after the taking of Chapo, the fleet entered the noble river Yang-tse-kiang, or Child of the Ocean, and on the 2d of July anchored at Chin-keang-foo, a strongly fortified city, and, in this part of the country, General Views - Introduction an important barrier for the defence of the interior. No sooner had the English set foot on shore, than the Chinese troops fled down the hills, and dispersed in all directions; but the Tartars bravely defended the city, firing incessantly from the ramparts. These were at length ascended by scaling ladders, and after some desperate fighting, in which many Englishmen were killed, the British flag was raised in triumph on the walls. The contention lasted till night, when the inhabitants began to make their escape from the city. The next morning a sad spectacle was presented - the usual effects of cruel war. The streets were strewed with the dead, the houses were mostly left desolate or in flames, the shops were pillaged, and evidences of female suicide were visible in every quarter. The taking of Chin-keang-foo is memorable for one of those extraordinary acts of individual resolution to which some would give the name of heroism; others, that of folly or madness. This was the self-sought fate of the Tartar general, who had made the greatest exertions to save the city, but who, when he found that the contest was decided in favor of the enemy, went into his house, and taking his accustomed seat in an arm-chair, ordered his servants to set fire to the dwelling. His body was found the next day much burned, but retaining the sitting posture in which he had placed himself to meet the approach of death. Probably he had swallowed opium, to deaden his senses ere the flames approached him. It was near the middle of August, when the British fleet arrived within sight of Nankin, about forty To some part of China, Christian made known at an early period. unable to establish the date. The a sometimes been assigned as the e labors and preaching of the apostle tradition, and even written accounts Thomas was the apostle of the Eas to be such by all the Eastern or Cha "He was the first preacher of Christ Hindoos, and founded the churches of to this day, the ancient monuments, ditions afford the most indubitable pre tolic labors among them. More tha thousand Syrian Christians, on the c and Coromandel, hold, with one unifor Thomas, the apostle, was the founder o It appears from the learned Assemann sequent writers, that Thomas, having the country from Malabar to Coroma great conversions to the faith in those F over to some coast in the East, calle may have been that country now called C Other authorities are adduced in t which we have taken the above, to sho was the introducer of Christianity into with great probability into China. Th tories, however, give no date to the intre * Chinese Repository, vol. i. No |