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new form of government was introduced, and a senate | Diana of the Ephesians," as she was styled by her established. This continued till a bold usurper, named adorers, was a small figure of ebony, which was bePythagoras, overturned the authority of the senate, lieved to have fallen from heaven. This statue was and made himself absolute in the city. He was one first placed in a niche which, it is said, the Amazons of the most inhuman tyrants mentioned in history, caused to be made in the trunk of an elm. Such was and maintained his power by a constant series of the origin of the veneration paid to Diana, in this place. oppressions and massacres. He was succeeded by In process of time, the reputation of the goddess Pindarus, who also exercised arbitrary sway, but increased to a great extent among the people of Asia, treated the citizens with more humanity. In his time, and led to the erection of the magnificent temple Ephesus was besieged by Croesus, king of Lydia, on above described. This edifice was set on fire and which occasion the inhabitants, according to a super- destroyed 355 B. C., on the day when Alexander the stitious practice of paganism, devoted their city to Great was born. This act was perpetrated by a man Diana, by fastening her temple to the city wall with named Erostratus, in order that he might be known to a rope. On the capture of the city, Pindarus was posterity as the destroyer of so noble a work of art. deprived of his power by Croesus, who, out of rever- In order to disappoint this hope, the people of Asia ence for the goddess Diana, treated the Ephesians made a decree that no one should pronounce his with great kindness, and restored them to their former name; but this prohibition only served to perpetuate liberty. the memory of it, and the wicked ambition of Erostratus has been recorded by all the historians of after times.

Ephesus, however, fell again under the power of tyrants, the last of whom, Hegesias, was overthrown and expelled from the city by Alexander the Great. The conqueror established a democratic government, and bestowed upon the temple of Diana all the tributes which the Ephesians had formerly paid to the king of Persia. In the war between Mithridates of Pontus and the Romans, the Ephesians took the part of the former, and by his orders massacred all the Romans who resided in their city. For this barbarous act they were severely fined, and reduced almost to beggary by Sylla, when he reconquered Asia Minor. At a later period, the Ephesians were treated kindly, and suffered to live according to their ancient laws, as appears from ancient medals and inscriptions. These people were much addicted to superstition, sorcery, and curious arts, as they are called in Scripture. Hence arose the phrase "Ephesian letters," which signified all sorts of spells, charms, and what are vulgarly called hocus-pocus tricks. In the time of the apostle Paul, Ephesus retained much of its ancient grandeur; but under the Byzantine emperors, it began to decline. Justinian pillaged it of its beautiful marble statues and magnificent columns, to deck the Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople. After this, Ephesus rapidly fell to ruin. At present, it is inhabited by a few Greek peasants, in the lowest state of poverty.

The great architectural ornament of this city was the temple of Diana, one of the seven wonders of the world. The size of this edifice was so enormous as nearly to exhaust the quarries of stone in the neighborhood of the city, and more than two hundred years were occupied in its erection. It was four hundred and twenty-five feet long, and surrounded by a colonnade of one hundred and twenty-seven marble pillars, seventy feet high, twenty-seven of which were carved in the most exquisite manner, the remainder were polished. These pillars were the gifts of so many different kings and princes. The bas-reliefs were executed by Scopas, the most famous artist in that line, and the altar was the work of Praxiteles, the first sculptor of all antiquity. The temple, and the courts attached to it, were surrounded by a strong wall, and a long portico of columns extended from the temple to a lake in the neighborhood.

All the inhabitants of Ionia, who travelled, resorted to Ephesus yearly, with their wives and children, and solemnized the festival of Diana with great pomp and magnificence. Rich offerings were made to the goddess, and valuable presents to the priests. The "great

Alexander offered to rebuild the temple of Diana, provided the Ephesians would allow him to engrave his name on the front. This proposal was rejected by a most extravagant but ingenious piece of flattery. They replied that "it was not proper for one god to build a temple to another!" The temple, however, was rebuilt. The columns and other materials, which had been saved out of the flames were sold; the Ephesian ladies contributed their jewels, and, by these means, a sum was raised sufficient to begin the work. Afterwards contributions came in from various quarters, till an immense treasure was collected, and the structure was completed in its original magnificence. This edifice was standing in the time of Pliny and Strabo, but is supposed to have been destroyed in the reign of Constantine, who issued an edict commanding that all the heathen temples should be thrown down and demolished.

The manner in which the marble, used in building this temple, was discovered, is too curious to be omitted. Vitruvius relates the story in the following manner: The Ephesians had no marble of their own, and intended to procure this material from Paros or Proconnesus, which places were then famous for their marble quarries. But one day a shepherd, named Pyxodorus, while tending his flock on the hill near Ephesus, saw two rams fighting. In running furiously at each other, one of them hit his horns so violently against a rock, that he split off a piece of it, and discovered it to be a beautiful white marble. The shepherd immediately ran with the splinter to Ephesus, where the people were then in great embarrassment about the importation of the marble. The discovery caused the highest exultation, and eminent honors were decreed to the author. His name of Pyxodorus was changed to Evangelos, signifying the messenger of good news. In the time of Vitruvius, it was the custom of the chief magistrate of the city to celebrate a sacrifice every month upon the spot where the discovery was made.

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when the accuser, touched with remorse at seeing an innocent man on the point of being put to death, confessed the falsity of his accusation. The king, ashamed of having so hastily given ear to calumny, reinstated him in his friendship, gave him a large sum of money, and sold his accuser Antiphilus for a slave.

born in the Island of Cos. The age of this artist | baseness. He was about to order him for execution, witnessed the full glory of the art of painting among the Greeks. He had the honor of contributing more than all the other painters to the perfection of the art, not only by his pencil, but by his writings. His industry was excessive; he never passed a day without laboring upon his canvas. His custom was, when he had finished a picture, to expose it in the Protogenes, another famous painter, lived at Rhodes. street for the criticism of the passers by, and to listen Apelles, who had never seen him, but had heard of to their remarks behind a curtain, in order to profit by his great reputation, went to Rhodes to pay him a them. One day, a shoemaker, having perceived visit. When he came to the house of Protogenes, he something wrong in the tying on of a sandal, spoke found nobody at home but his housekeeper. She of it. The next day he found it corrected. Proud asked his name. "I will write it down," said Apelles; of his criticism, he next objected to the leg of a figure and, taking up a brush, painted something on a canvas in which there was nothing to censure. The painter which stood on the easel. Protogenes, on his return, then stepped from behind his curtain, and bade the was informed that a stranger had called upon him and shoemaker stick to his trade. This gave birth to the left a token for him. When he saw the picture, he proverb, which has been so often repeated, Ne sutor | exclaimed, "This is Apelles! No other man in the ultra crepidam - "A cobbler should not go beyond world could have done it!" The two artists soon contracted a friendship which lasted during their lives.

his last."

Apelles took pleasure in doing justice to the merit of other great masters, and was not ashamed to prefer them to himself in some qualities. He confessed that Amphion excelled him in grouping, and Asclepiodorus in drawing. His skill in painting was not his only merit he was eminent for polite learning and knowledge of the world. His elegant manners made him highly agreeable to Alexander the Great, who did not disdain to visit the painter's house, in order to enjoy the charms of his conversation, and witness the wonders performed by his pencil. The conqueror had so high an estimation of Apelles, that he published an edict declaring it his will that no other person should paint his portrait.

The frank and simple manners of Apelles were not equally agreeable to the generals of the Macedonian monarch. Some time after the death of Alexander, the painter, being on a sea voyage, was thrown by a tempest on the coast of Egypt. Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, had received that kingdom as his share of the Macedonian conquests. This prince bore no good will to Apelles, and did not invite him to his court. Besides this mortification, there were some persons who envied him, and were malicious enough to attempt to embroil him with the king. For this purpose, they induced one of the officers of the court to carry a message to Apelles, as if from the king, inviting him to dinner. The painter accordingly attended at the royal palace; and Ptolemy, in great indignation at the intrusion of the unexpected guest, demanded of him who had given him the invitation. Apelles, who was unacquainted with his name, stood a moment disconcerted, while his enemies enjoyed his embarrassment, and expected an order to turn him out of doors with ignominy. But this triumph was short. The painter suddenly caught up a piece of charcoal from a chafing-dish, and, with a few strokes on the wall, sketched the figure of the man in question so accurately that he was known in an instant. This incident reconciled Apelles with the king, who afterwards loaded him with wealth and honors.

Pliny has given a long list of the paintings executed by Apelles. The portrait of Antigonus was one of the most famous. This prince had but one eye, on which account the artist drew him in profile, thus concealing the defect. He painted many portraits of Alexander, one of which was esteemed the most finished of all his works, and was executed for the temple of Diana at Ephesus. The conqueror was represented with thunder in his hand, which Pliny, who had seen it, says, appeared actually projecting from the canvas. The hero himself was accustomed to say there were two Alexanders - the one of Philip, who was invincible, and the other of Apelles, which was inimitable.

The masterpiece of Apelles was his Venus Anadyomene, or the goddess rising from the sea. According to Pliny, this painting was celebrated by the verses of the greatest poets. It is supposed that this was the picture purchased by the emperor Augustus for a sum equal to one hundred thousand dollars. At the time of this purchase, a part of the picture had become damaged by dampness. Inquiry was made by the emperor for some artist to retouch it; but no one was bold enough to undertake to repair a picture by Apelles. This augmented the glory of the Greek painter and the reputation of the work itself. Pliny informs us that this and all the other famous paintings of antiquity were executed with only the four primitive colors.

Heraclitus, the philosopher, was born at Ephesus, 504 B. C. He showed an ardor for the acquisition of knowledge at a very early age, and was soon initiated into the mysteries of the Pythagorean school of philosophy. He stood so high in the public opinion at Ephe. sus, that the citizens offered to make him chief magistrate; but he declined, partly on account of the existing form of government, which did not suit his taste, and partly because he was disgusted with the licentious manners of the people. Soon afterwards, he was seen playing with boys in the street; and when his friends expressed their wonder, he replied, "Is not this better business than governing the corrupt Ephesians?" He was of a melancholy temperament, and disposed to shun intercourse with mankind. A story has been commonly believed that he was perpetually shedding tears for the follies of his fellow-creatures, on which account he is generally denominated the weeping philosopher," in contrast to Democritus, who was called the "laughing philosopher." Under the

This success, however, did not silence the enemies of Apelles. Some time after, he was accused before Ptolemy of having entered into a conspiracy with the Tyrians against him. The accuser was a painter named Antiphilus. Ptolemy, without seeking for any further evidence, took it for granted that Apelles was criminal," and reproached him bitterly with his ingratitude and

THE CITY OF SMYRNA.

influence of this gloomy and unsocial disposition, Heraclitus withdrew from society to a sequestered spot among the mountains, where he devoted himself to studious contemplation, and lived only upon the natural produce of the earth. His fame, however, spread abroad, and Darius of Persia sent him an invitation to come and reside at his court, that he might profit by his instructions. The morose philosopher rudely spurned the royal civilities. He died of a dropsy, at about sixty years of age, after vainly attempting to cure himself by dwelling in a stable, closely shut up among oxen, the heat of whose bodies he imagined would absorb all the moisture of his own. He wrote a treatise "On Nature," in a very obscure style, and became the founder of a sect in philosophy. The doctrines of this sect were atheistic, and many of them very absurd. One of their notions was, that all nature is full of souls or demons. Another was, that fire is the principle from which all things are produced, and that those souls are the best which have the least moisture, and approach nearest to the primary fire.

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Colophon, a city of Ionia, was founded by Andræmon, the son of Codrus. It was situated two miles from the sea, its harbor being connected with the city by means of long walls. It was destroyed by Lysimachus, in order to swell the population of Ephesus. The Colophonians at one time possessed a very flourishing navy, and their cavalry was in such repute as always to turn the tide of victory wherever it went to battle. Hence the word Colophon became proverbial to signify a "finisher." The word has been retained in modern languages, and the name of Colophon was used by the old printers to indicate the end of the last page, which contained the "imprint," or the name of the town where it was printed, with the date of the edition. Another account states that the proverb arose from the fact that Colophon enjoyed the privilege of a double vote in the Ionian confederacy, in consequence of which this city was enabled to decide many disputed questions. Colophon was one of the cities which claimed to be the birthplace of Homer.

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CHAPTER CXLIII.

The City of Smyrna - Anaxagoras

Anacreon.

Modern Smyrna.

SMYRNA is one of the most ancient cities of Asia Minor, and almost the only one which has, in modern times, retained any of its ancient prosperity. According to some traditions, it was originally an Eolian colony, and was afterwards seized by some Ionian exiles of Colophon. Another account describes it as an Ionian colony of Ephesus. After Melite, one of the Ionian towns, had been destroyed by the common consent of the others, Smyrna was admitted into the confederacy. It was supposed by some to have been the birthplace of Homer, and on the banks of the Meles, in its vicinity, there was a grotto, in which he was believed to have composed his poems. The Smyrnæans were proud of this tradition, and endeavored to propagate and confirm it. Sadyattes, king of Lydia, captured the city, destroyed it, and distributed the inhabitants among the villages in the neighborhood. About four hundred years afterwards, Smyrna was rebuilt by Antigonus and Lysimachus, or, according to other accounts, by Alexander the Great.

It was esteemed the most beautiful of the Ionian cities, and was extolled by the ancients under the pompous titles of "Smyrna the lovely," "the crown of Ionia," "" the ornament of Asia." According to a very common practice among the Greeks, its principal public buildings were erected on the slope of a hill fronting the sea. The hill supplied the marble, while the declivity afforded a position for the seats rising gradually one above another, in the stadium, or great theatre, for the exhibition of games. This city was one of the chief points of contention between the Ottomans and the Greeks, and, in consequence, was nearly ruined in the wars between these two nations. After being in some degree restored, it was taken and plundered by Timour, A. D. 1402. Almost every vestige of the ancient city is now obliterated. The vaulted foundation of the stadium remains, but its area is sown with grain. There are only a few relics of the theatre, and the castle which crowns the hill is a structure erected by the Greek emperor John Comnenus on the ruins of the old one, whose walls of immense thickness and strength may still be discovered. Smyrna, in the course of its revolutions, has, in a manner, slid down from the hill to the sea, close to which it is now

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ANAXAGORAS-ANACREON-PARRHASIUS.

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situated. Under the Turkish government, it has com- | his banishment from Athens, he passed the remainder pletely regained its populousness, and has become the of his days at Lampsacus, where he died, (428 B. C.) emporium of the Levant trade. The situation of Being asked, just before his death, whether he wished Smyrna is such, that it could scarcely fail to be a to be carried for interment to Clazomene, he replied, flourishing place. It has a fine bay, with good anchor-"It is unnecessary; the way to the other world is age, a secure and capacious harbor, and in the rear a equally open every where." The magistrates of fertile plain, watered by the River Meles, which pro- Lampsacus requested to be informed in what manner duces fruits and vegetables in abundance. The groves he would permit them to honor his memory. Only," and minarets of the city make a beautiful appearance said he, "let the day of my death be kept as a holiday from the sea; but the interior displays ill-paved streets for the schoolboys." This good-humored request was and gloomy walls. The houses along the shore are complied with, and the custom remained in Lampsacus very delightful, having gardens extending down to the in the time of Diogenes Laertius, seven hundred years water, and kiosks scattered about them. The whole afterwards. city is like a market, abounding with the chief commodities of Europe, Asia, and America. Of the Asiatics, the Armenians are the most numerous traders here, and the caravans from Persia are principally composed of them. The French trade is carried on chiefly from Marseilles, and the Italian from Leghorn. The exports from Smyrna are figs, raisins, raw silk, cotton, carpets, drugs, &c. This city is often infested with the plague, which has, at times, committed great ravages. It is also somewhat liable to earthquakes. The population is about one hundred thousand, of whom thirty thousand are Greeks, and eight thousand Armenians.

Anaxagoras, one of the most illustrious philosophers of antiquity, was born at Clazomene, in Ionia, (500 B. C.) Though a person of noble extraction, and possessing a large patrimony, he relinquished his connections and estate, that he might be entirely disengaged from secular concerns. He first became the pupil of Anaximenes the Milesian. At the age of twenty, he left Miletus, and entered upon the study of philosophy at Athens. He acquired high reputation there, and had many illustrious disciples, among whom were Euripides the tragedian, Pericles, and Socrates. With out accepting any public office, or making himself conspicuous in affairs of state, he rendered much service to the Athenian republic. But neither his learning, nor his disinterested spirit, nor the friendship of Pericles, could preserve him from persecution. He was accused by the demagogue Cleon, of impiety, for teaching that the sun was no god, but a burning mass of stone, thereby contradicting the vulgar opinion that the sun was Apollo, one of the greater deities. Anaxagoras, indeed, did not scruple, when occasion offered, to expose the vulgar superstitions. He ridiculed the Athenian priests for predicting a calamity because a ram with but one horn had made its appearance. To convince the people that there was nothing supernatural in the animal, he opened his head, and showed them that it was so constructed as necessarily to prevent the growth of the other horn. Anaxagoras was condemned to death; but, through the interposition of Pericles, who appeared in his defence, and maintained that he had committed no capital crime, and that his prosecution had been prompted by malice, the sentence was changed to that of fine and banishment.

When one of his friends expressed regret on account of his banishment, he replied, "It is not I who have lost Athens, but the Athenians who have lost me." One day, while he was lecturing, he received the news of the death of his son. He only observed, with perfect calmness, "I knew he was mortal." When he was doomed to death by his judges, he consoled himself by a similar reflection "Nature long ago pronounced the same sentence against me. "After

Anaxagoras received the name of "Mind," on account of his intellectual superiority. In his philosophy, he taught that the universe consisted of small bodies composed of similar parts, and that mind is the beginning of motion. He was the first among the Greeks who conceived the primary active principle in the universe, MIND, to be simple, pure intelligence, existing separately from and independent of matter. He must have paid considerable attention to the phenomena of nature, for he explained the appearance of the rainbow as the reflection of the solar rays from a black cloud, and discovered that wind is produced by the rarefaction of the air.

Anacreon, the famous lyric poet, was a native of Teos, in Ionia. He flourished in the sixth century B. C., and was in great favor with Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, at whose court he resided. Such was his poetical fame, that Hipparchus, the son of Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, sent a vessel of fifty oars on purpose to bring him to Athens. He was a professed volup tuary, and addicted to enjoyment without restraint. Yet he had a sort of philosophical contempt for wealth, illustrated by the following anecdote which is related of him. Polycrates gave him a large sum of money, which Anacreon at first accepted; but, at the end of two days, finding the anxiety of taking care of his wealth had deprived him of rest, he carried it back to the giver, saying, "Money is good, but sleep is better." He lived to a cheerful old age, and died at eighty-five. A tradition was current that he was choked by a grape-stone; but this was a very natural invention to embellish the story of a poet who had sung the praises of wine. The poems of Anacreon now extant are short odes upon light and joyous topics, abounding in sweetness of expression, sprightliness, and elegant fancy. They are so characteristic in this manner as to have given the name of Anacreontic to the whole class of similar compositions. Some doubts are entertained as to the authenticity of certain of the pieces which form the collection passing for the works of Anacreon; but, in proof that they are genu ine, it may be stated that many of them are quoted by ancient writers.

Parrhasius, the painter, was a native of Ephesus, and, in the judgment of antiquity, was worthy to be regarded as the rival of Zeuxis. According to Quintilian, the former excelled in design and the latter in coloring. Parrhasius is represented as an artist of vast genius and fertility of invention, but most presumptuous and arrogant in behavior. He dressed in purple, wore a crown of gold, carried a richly adorned cane, and displayed gold buckles in his shoes. Every thing about him was in the same ostentatious and lofty style. He bestowed upon himself the most pompous and high-sounding names, which he was not ashamed to

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by the irruption of the Eolians into Bootia, and of the Dorians into Peloponnesus.

inscribe at the bottom of his pictures. He was the There are many doubtful legends respecting the elegant," the " polite," the "delicate," the "man planting of colonies in Asia Minor, by the heroes who who carried the art to perfection," the man "origin- commanded the Greek armies in the famous expedition ally descended from Apollo," the man "born to paint against that city; and, although it is impossible to septhe gods themselves." It is allowed that Parrhasius arate the truth from the fiction in these stories, they excelled in depicting the characters of men and the appear not to be wholly groundless. The earliest Greek passions of the soul. One of his pictures represented colonies which can safely be pronounced historical, are the genius and people of Athens. The description of those which were the result of what is commonly this piece indicates an inexhaustible fund of imagina-known as the Eolian migration. This was produced tion in the artist. Omitting nothing in the character of that versatile people, he represented Athens on one side as capricious, irascible, unjust, and inconstant, and on the other as humane, merciful, and compassionate; also as proud, haughty, vainglorious, fierce, and even base and cowardly. It is not very easy to understand how all these qualities could be combined in a single figure. Perhaps it was an allegorical design, and contained figures accessory to the principal one. According to the representation of Pliny, Parrhasius first gave symmetry to painting—was the first to throw a sprightly expression into the countenance, to make the hair flow with elegance, and to infuse grace into the features. Xenophon makes him an interlocutor with Socrates in a dialogue on the pictorial art.* He is supposed to have lived about

400 B. C.

CHAPTER CXLIV.
1500 to 60 B. C.

EOLIA AND DORIS.

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Greek Colonies in Asia Minor. ÆOLIA and DORIS were Greek colonies on the shore of Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, which were settled, during the century that followed the destruction of Troy, by Æolian and Dorian emigrants from Greece.

* It is said that Parrhasius, "being engaged on a painting representing Prometheus chained to the rock, bought a captive taken in war by Philip of Macedon, and then put him to death by slow torture, in order to paint from nature the agonies of a violent death." The poet though he has committed an anachronism in referring the event to the time of Philip of Macedon — has taken advantage of this legend in the following lines :

"Parrhasius stood, gazing forgetfully

Upon his canvas. There Prometheus lay
Chained to the cold rocks of Mount Caucasus,
The vulture at his vitals, and the links

Of the lame Semnian festering in his flesh;
And, as the painter's mind felt through the dim,
Rapt mystery, and plucked the shadows wild
Forth with its reaching fancy, and with form
And color clad them, his fine, earnest eyes
Flashed with a passionate fire, and the quick curl
Of his thin nostril, and his quivering lip,

Were like the winged god's breathing from his flight.
"Bring me the captive now!

My hand feels skilful, and the shadows lift
From my waked spirit airily and swift;

And I could paint the bow

Upon the bended heavens-around me play
Colors of such divinity to-day.

"Ha! bind him on his back!
Look! as Prometheus in my picture here.
Quick, or he faints! Stand with the cordial near !
Now-bend him to the rock!

Press down the poisoned links into his flesh!
And tear agape that healing wound afresh!
"So! let him writhe! How long
Will he live thus? Quick, my good pencil, now!
What a fine agony works upon his brow!
Ha! gray-haired, and so strong!
How fearfully he stifles that short moan!
Gods! if I could but paint a dying groan

" &c.
Willis.

The immediate consequence of this irruption was that a number of Æolians, Boeotians, and Achæans formed a resolution to emigrate from Greece, and seek a more peaceful residence in the East. The emigrants were headed by chiefs who claimed a descent from Agamemnon. The main body embarked at the port of Aulis, from which he had led the Greek armament against Troy. They took the same direction at first, and landed in the Isle of Lesbos, where they founded six cities. Other detachments occupied the coast of Asia, opposite this island, from the foot of Mount Ida to the mouth of the River Hermus.

This was the real origin of the greater part of the Eolian settlements in Asia Minor, although a tradition exists that a migration from Peloponnesus toward the East had begun some time previous. Orestes was said to have led an Achæan colony to Lesbos, or Tenedos. Another band, conducted by Clines and Malaus - descendants of Agamemnon-is said to have emigrated to Asia Minor, where they found the Pelasgians in possession of the coast, but much weakened by the Trojan war. The invaders attacked and took their chief town, Larissa, and afterward founded Cuma, which subsequently obtained the name of Phriconis, and became the chief of the Eolian cities in

Asia Minor.

The Eolian migration may be dated 1124 B. C. — fifty or sixty years subsequent to the capture of Troy. For more than a century after the arrival of the first colonists, new adventurers continued to flock in. The ancient cities on the main land, or those of Eolia, as this region was sometimes called, amounted to eleven; but about thirty others were afterward founded by the people of Cuma and Lesbos in the territory of Priam, which the Lesbians seem to have claimed as legitimate heirs to the conquests of Agamemnon.

Some time after the settlement, the Eolians concentrated their establishments, and formed a species This of federal union, called the Eolian league. consisted of twelve states, or cities, namely, Smyrna, Cyme, Larissa, Neontichos, Temnos, Cilla, Nolium, Ægiroessa, Pitane, Ægæa, Myrina, Grynea. To these were added several inferior towns, making the whole number of associated communities, thirty. Smyrna was afterward transferred to the Ionian union. All the Eolian cities were independent of each other, and had their own constitutions. Sometimes political disturbances led to the establishment of arbitrary rulers; but, in general, the government was of a popular character. Croesus of Lydia subjected Æolia to his dominion; and, on the overthrow of this monarch, the Persian authority was substituted, and continued till the Macedonian conquest, after which the country followed the fortunes of the rest of Asia Minor.

The south-western corner of Asia Minor and the neighboring islands were occupied, about the period of the Eolian migrations, by the Dorian and Achæan set

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