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HISTORY IN ITS MORAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL RELATIONS.

CHAPTER II.

Of History in its Moral and Philosophical

Relations.

as well as most useful and necessary inclinations of the human mind. Hence we are led to devour, too related to us in historical connection. We wish to often with an undiscriminating appetite, whatever is see the end of the story, whether it be a tale of woe or "HISTORY," says Cicero, "is the light of truth" of joy, of triumphant vice, or of virtue persecuted and a noble expression, and one which reflects honor on depressed. But it cannot be said that mankind symthe pure and upright mind of its author. On the pathize more strongly with the wicked than with the clearness and steadiness of this light, depends its whole virtuous; on the contrary, we feel greater pleasure in value in guiding us through the obscure and difficult reading those histories which present illustrious expassages of human life. We can reason only from amples of patriotism, of self-devotion, of generosity, what we know, and without truth our fancied knowl- and whatever ennobles and exalts the human characedge is worse than ignorance. Dionysius of Halicar-ter, than those which abound only in petty intrigues, nassus has remarked, with equal truth and force of expression, that "history is philosophy teaching by example:" a saying which is likely to be repeated as long as the true character and uses of this department of human knowledge continue to be understood. But the question immediately presents itself, What is the philosophy that history should teach? What is the utility, which ought to be its main object? The answer is plain :- Virtue, the moral improvement of man, the nature and extent of his duties here, and the means which fit him for happiness hereafter. These constitute, not, indeed, the sole, but certainly the first and highest aim, which both the writer and reader of history should keep in view. In this sense, history has been called by the great Roman orator, "the mistress of life;" and Tacitus has remarked, that "It is the peculiar office of the historian to take care that virtue be not passed over in silence, but so to represent things, that men may fear to do or to speak evil, from the dread of the infamy which may await them in the opinion of posterity!"

and the various artifices of selfishness and corruption. The decline and fall of a great empire is no less instructive than its origin and growth. The solid and permanent pleasure of history does not consist in its highly colored pictures of crime and folly; or in strange events, amplifications, and exaggerations; but in the truth, beauty, and grandeur of the sentiments and descriptions which it furnishes; in the simple and unaffected ease of the narrative; in the great variety of particulars, all bearing upon one general matter, all throwing light on each other, and all illustrating the subtle movements of the human heart, the influence of social principles and institutions, and the great designs and laws of Providence in the government of the world.

The reasons, therefore, why history has always been, and always will be, a most important and agreeable department of human knowledge, are perfectly clear. To desire to know the past, to ascertain how that which now is became what it is, and to understand the successive steps of its development, is an active principle of our intellectual and moral constitution. Everything which concerns a human being, excites the uni

A love for history seems inseparable from human nature, because it is inseparable from a regard for ourselves. The same principle, in this instance, car-versal sympathies of mankind, and the fate of one comries us forward and backward to future and past ages. munity is, of course, interesting to all other communities. We imagine that the things which affect us must The history of a nation, properly defined, may be affect posterity. This sentiment runs through man- stated to be a narrative, in chronological order, of the kind, from Julius Cæsar down to a justice of peace. various actions and events by which the society which We are fond of preserving, as far as we can, the mem-constitutes that nation, became organized and estabory of our own adventures, or those of our own time lished. Such a narrative, if skilfully executed, will and of those which preceded it. Rude heaps of stone of itself indicate the general principles which from have been raised, and ruder hymns have been com- time to time have affected the condition of society. posed, for this purpose, by nations without letters or But as the main subject of history is the progressive the arts of civilization. Almost all savage nations development of social institutions, that historian who have customs of this sort, and long historical ballads displays the greatest discernment in pointing out those of their huntings and their wars are sung at festivals matters, which, at each stage, characterize this proand on other occasions. gress, will make the nearest approach to the standard of philosophical perfection in his work.

It is a common remark, that all history is uncertain; and if this were true to the full extent, there would be little use in attempting to show the value of that which cannot be known with certainty. But though many events, or rather the minute circumstances of such events, are uncertain, the most valuable part of history rests upon monuments which have no uncertainty in their character. The positive institutions of every civilized country, its laws, and its literature, are recorded facts, which are rich in instruction, not to mention an infinity of other facts, of which they are conclusive and satisfactory proof.

Again; the chief interest of history has been said

to arise from the vices and follies of mankind. This is by no means true. The source of the mistake may be referred to the fact, that curiosity, or the vague desire of knowledge, is one of the most deeply rooted,

OF THE MATERIALS FOR HISTORY-MONUMENTS AND COINS.

11

barous people. Thus the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, | been even more general than historical poems, may orally transmitted for several centuries, have been and be found in visible monuments, such as pillars, edifices, still are a fertile source of historical information, re- heaps of stones, &c., erected upon occasion of remarkspecting the manners, customs, and opinions of nations able events. These monuments, attracting the attenwhich flourished nearly fifteen centuries before the tion of the rising generation, would of course cause Christian era. They also afford unexpected testimony such inquiries concerning their origin and use, as to the truth of the earlier records of the Old Testament, would long preserve the knowledge of the transactions as they portray certain curious manners and customs, to which they refer. Thus we find that when the analogous to those described in the sacred volume, of Hebrews crossed the Jordan to invade the land of Canathe same period. an, they set up a heap of twelve stones, to commemorate the event. [Josh. iv. 5.]

Another method of preserving tradition, which has

The Greeks also, when they defeated, at Marathon, the Persian armies which had invaded their country, erected a mound on the plain where the battle was fought, as a memorial of the victory. This historical monument may be seen at the present day.

Of the same nature are national customs in commemoration of remarkable facts in history; such as the Paschal Supper among the Jews; the sending a ship annually to Delos by the Athenians; the carrying about an effigy of Guy Fawkes on the 5th of November, by the English, &c.

The language of a people is also an important guide to a historian, both in tracing their origin and in discovering the state of many other important circumstances, respecting them. Colonists, for instance, will speak the language of their mother country, unless some event produce a more free and constant intercourse with people of a different tongue; and even the proportion of that foreign intercourse may in some measure be estimated by the degree of corruption in the language. It may be added, that language takes a tincture from the civil policy, manners, customs, employments and taste of the nation which uses it, and thus a sagacious observer will be able to make many curious discoveries.

sixth century, the administration of justice was very irregular in France, and that a man could have had little security for his liberty, property or life.

But still more curious materials for history exist in coins and medals, which may be regarded as a species of portable monuments. Such a multiplicity of events have been recorded by ancient medals, and so great has been the care of antiquaries and scholars in collecting and preserving them, that they have been made to throw great light upon history. They confirm such statements as are true in old authors, clear up what was doubtful, and supply what has been omitted. It is remarkable, for instance, that history scarcely makes mention of the magnificent cities of Balbec and Palmyra, whose ruins are now so famous: we have, indeed, little knowledge of them beyond what is supplied by inscriptions and medals. A history, lost to the world, has been recovered by this means. A small collection of medals gives us a complete chronicle of the kings of Syria, not mentioned by any ancient writer whatever.

The laws of a country are necessarily connected with everything belonging to it; so that a thorough knowledge of these is essential in order to learn its history. As every new law is made to remove some inconvenience to which the community is subject, the law itself is, so far, a standing and authentic evidence of the state of things previous to its enactment. The conquest of Judea, by Vespasian and Titus, was When we read that a law was made by Clothaire, commemorated by a medal struck by order of the King of France, that no person should be condemned Roman Senate, and now preserved in the British without being heard, we may be certain that in the Museum. Of this, we give a copy as a specimen.

Apamea was an inland city of Phrygia, situated at the source of the river Marsyas, not far from the Mæander. Its original name was Kibotos, or Ark. Upon this medal is a representation of the history of the flood. The ark is floating on the water, and through an opening, are seen a man and a woman, the latter veiled. A dove is perched upon the roof, and another is flying toward the ark bearing the branch of a tree. Before the ark are two persons, who by their attitude seem to have just quitted it. On the ark itself is to be read in distinct characters the Greek name of Noah.

The inscription surrounding all the figures is thus interpreted, "This medal was struck when Marcus Aurelius Alexander was a second time Chief Pontiff of the Apameans."

Roman coins.

dle and Commodus with his lion's skin. Upon coins also, which are still preserved, are to be seen plans of the most considerable buildings of ancient Rome. An entire gallery of ancient architectural monuments might be formed from this source alone. It is remarkable that the buildings and other objects thus represented are seen only in front, and never in perspective-an art with which the ancients were but little acquainted.

CHAPTER IV.

Of Inscriptions, Statues, Seals, Pictures,
Ruins, &c.

tablets of metal, &c., is also of great utility in the THE study of inscriptions upon monuments of stone of antiquity are very abundant, and, considered as pubprosecution of historical researches. These remains lic and contemporary monuments, they form a class of historical evidence worthy of great confidence. Since the revival of letters, much attention has been devoted to the work of discovering, collecting, publishing and explaining inscriptions. They are found upon columns, altars, tombs, vases, statues, temples, and other edifices. Their design is to record some memorable event, or to point out the use and meaning of the object on which they are engraved. They are mostly in prose, but sometimes in verse. Greek inscriptions were remarkable for uniting beauty, perspicuity and vigor. The most ancient inscriptions known are undoubtedly those of the Egyptian temples, tombs, and monuments. These are in the hieroglyphical characters, which for a long time eluded all the sagacity of the learned. But recently the hieroglyphical alphabet These curious relics of antiquity not only preserve has been deciphered through the ingenuity and labors the knowledge of the leading events of history, but of Young and Champollion, and the inscriptions have they likewise transmit to us information of many thrown a wonderful degree of light upon the history things important to be known, more accurately than of ancient Egypt. Some of them are said to be dated could be furnished by any written description. Thus 3000 years before the birth of Christ. we find upon medals, traces of manners and customs, The oldest Greek inscription, if it be genuine, is the figures of ancient buildings, instruments, garments, &c., which show very strikingly the state of the arts at the time when they were executed.

In the British Museum is another medal, of great interest, as it appears to have been executed at Tyre, at a very early date, and presents on one side the form of the ancient Phoenician vessels.

that discovered at Amyclæ, in Greece. It contains a list of the names of the priestesses of the temple of Apollo at that place. The date is fixed at about 1000 Many interesting matters have been neglected by B. C. The Elian inscription, on a bronze tablet found historians as being too familiar to require notice, or at Olympia, comprises a treaty of alliance between the from a belief that they would never engage the curios- Elians and the Hereans, written in the Eolic dialect. ity of after times. Yet, fortunately these are supplied The date is supposed to be 615 B. C. The Sigaan by coins, upon which we see the dresses of different inscription was found upon a piece of marble, supposed persons in different ages, civil and religious customs, to have been the pedestal of a statue. It specifies a

OF INSCRIPTIONS, STATUES, SEALS, RUINS, PICTURES, ETC.

gift of three cups made by Phanodicus to the magistrates of Sigæum. It is referred to the 6th century B. C. The mode of writing, in this inscription, is that very ancient one, called by the Greeks boustrophedon or ox-turn, that is, forward and backward in alternate lines, as an ox ploughs a field. We subjoin a facsimile from this very curious relic.

ΦΑΝΟΔΙΚΟ:E MI:TOH

ОО 470Т: ОТАУ 0193

ΓΕΖΙΟ ΚΑΛΟ ΚΡΑΤΕΡΑ

MOH AXMOTATZITAX
ON: EZ PV TAMEION:K
YATRAMIMM/04

The translation of the above is as follows: "I am the statue of Phanodicus, the son of Hermocrates the Proconesian. I gave a cup, a saucer and a strainer, to be preserved in the Council-House. If I meet with any accident, it belongs to you, Sigeans, to repair me. I am the work of Esop and his brethren."

The inscription of Teos, of the 5th century B. C., devotes to the infernal deities whatever persons may injure the people of that town by resisting their magistrates, plundering their territories, or hindering foreigners from supplying them with corn.

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Since Xerxes formed a bridge of boats on the Hellespont, and dug through Athos, and the battle was fought at Thermopylae, and the sea-fight by the Greeks at Salamis against the Persians, in which the Greeks were victorious, 217 years. Calliades being archon at Athens.

RINEVA

ふくし
S14115

.... ΣΤΕΡΕΟΥΛΙΘΟΥ ΤΟ ΣΤΕΙΕ

The inscription on the Rosetta stone has excited the highest interest in very recent times, and afforded the means of making the most important discoveries in the antiquities of Egypt. This stone was found during the expedition of Bonaparte in Egypt, about the year 1800. As a party of French soldiers were digging for the foundations of a fort at Rosetta, they disinterred a large block of black basalt, containing the remains of three inscriptions. This stone afterwards fell into the hands of the English, and is now in the British Museum at London. The inscription upon it consists of a sort of decree of the Egyptian priests in honor of But the most interesting and important of all the Ptolemy V. Epiphanes; its date being the year in which Greek inscriptions is that called the Parian Chronicle. he began his reign, B. C. 193. It recounts the memoThis writing is on a block of marble, now in the Uni-rable deeds of his minority, and utters a pledge for the versity of Oxford, in England. It was obtained at erection of a statue to him in every temple. This Smyrna, with other antique marbles, in the early part decree was engraved in three different characters, of the 17th century, by a person employed by the Earl Hieroglyphic, Enchorial and Greek. This fact being of Arundel in making collections of antiquities. Dur- evident from the Greek inscription, a method was ing the civil wars, in the reign of Charles I., these afforded of deciphering the two others, and thus the treasures, which went by the name of the Arundelian first clue was obtained to the hieroglyphic alphabet, marbles, were defaced and broken. Some of them which had so long defied the researches of antiquawere used as building-materials in repairing Arundel rians. House, and a part of the Parian Chronicle was worked into a chimney.

This block of marble contained in its perfect state a chronological account of the principal events in Grecian history during a period of 1318 years. The parts effaced have been restored by the ingenuity of learned scholars. The chronicle is supposed to have been executed about 268 B. C. We subjoin a few extracts from this very interesting record for the satisfaction of the curious reader.

I have described preceding time, beginning with Cecrops, the first who reigned at Athens, to Astyanax, archon in Paros, and Diognetus at Athens.

Since Cecrops reigned at Athens and the country was called Cecropia, formerly named Actice, from Actaios, a native, 1318 years.

Since Deucalion reigned at Parnassus in Lycoreia, Cecrops reigning at Athens, 1310 years.

Since the cause was tried at Athens, between Ares [MARS] and Poseidon [NEPTUNE] concerning Holirrhothios the son of Poseidon, and the place was called Areopagus, 1263 years. Cranaus reigning at Athens. Since the deluge happened in the time of Deucalion, and Deucalion escaped the rains, went from Lycoreia to Athens to Cranaus, built the temple of Jupiter Olympus, and offered sacrifices for his preservation, 1268 years. Cranaus reigning at Athens.

A vast number, also, of Roman inscriptions have been gathered from the mass of ancient ruins. Of these the following are among the most interesting.

The inscription upon the pedestal of the Rostral Column at Rome, so called because it was ornamented with beaks of ships, was erected in honor of the Consul Duilius, after the naval victory which he obtained over the Carthaginians, B. C. 261. During the Second Punic War, this column was struck down by lightning, and the ruins remained concealed till the year 1560, when they were discovered in the Roman forum. This inscription is regarded as the most ancient monument of the Latin or Roman characters hitherto discovered.

The inscriptions on the tomb stone of the Scipios are nearly equal in antiquity to that of the Duilian column. One of these was discovered in the vault of the Scipian family, in 1780, and is engraved on a handsome sarcophagus, now in the Vatican. The other was found on a slab of marble which had been carried away from the tomb.

The inscription termed The Decree respecting the Bacchanalia, Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus, was discovered in 1640 in the province of Abruzzo, kingdom of Naples. It is engraved upon a bronze table, and the authenticity of it is fully substantiated by Livy, who gives the occasion and substance of the decree.

OF INSCRIPTIONS, STATUES, SEALS, RUINS, PICTURES, ETC.

It was enacted B. C. 186, and prohibits the nocturnal original. The countenances of many of the Roman celebration of the Bacchanalian rites, throughout the emperors, in ancient statues, are found to agree Roman dominions.