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"beautiful simplicity and extreme perfection" which he so much admired, were not attained till about the beginning of the sixteenth century; and that the game, as played by the Persians and Indians even as late as Sir William's own time, was the same as that described in the Shāhnāma-in other words, the medieval game of Asia and Europe. Nor do I by any means admit the "simplicity" either of the modern game, or of the mediaval, which, compared with the Chaturanga, are of so profound and complex a nature, that it would be little short of a miracle in any "great human genius" to have invented either species of them " by the first intention." In fact, Sir William has misapplied this pretty simile altogether. We will grant that Raphael and Michael Angelo could each conceive and execute, "by the first intention," a painting at once sublime and beautiful—a master piece destined to excite the admiration of future ages; but then, how many years of painful labour and close study had those eminent men passed before they could have performed such wonders! But it is needless to dwell any longer on this point. We know that Chess, like all other human arts and inventions, arose from rude beginnings, and gradually advanced towards comparative perfection. I have now little more to say on this very ancient game; but ere I conclude I think I am fully justified in subjoining the following plain deductions from what I have advanced in this and the last chapter, viz :

1st. That the game of Chaturanga is, in all essential respects, the same as the game of Chess; the elements and principles of both being identical, and the minor points of detail in which they differ being the mere result of such slow and gradual improvements as time and circumstances have developed.

2nd. That the Chaturanga was invented by a people

whose language was Sanskrit, is evident on the most unerring etymological grounds, in addition to the direct testimony of the Puranic poems, and also that of all the old writers of Arabia and Persia who have in any way alluded to the subject; consequently, that the invention belongs to the Hindus only.

3rd. That the Chaturanga, whether judged by its own intrinsic nature, or by the testimony of ancient writers, existed long before that modification of it called Shatranj, or the medieval game.

4th. That the Chaturanga is the most ancient game, not only of Chess, but of anything approaching the nature of Chess, of which any account has been handed down to us. It claims an antiquity of nearly 5,000 years; and, with every allowance for poetic license, there is margin enough left to prove that it was known and practised in India long before it found its way to any other region, not excepting the very ancient empire of China-even on the showing of the Celestials themselves.

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CHAPTER V.

CHATURANGA CONCLUDED.

Gradual change into the Shatranj, or Mediaval Game.

I WOULD now beg leave to hazard a few conjectures respecting the mode in which the ancient Chaturanga became gradually changed into the Shatranj, or mediæval game. We have seen that, in playing the former, it was an object of importance with each of the four players to gain possession of his ally's throne-a step which thenceforth secured to him the undivided command of the allied forces. It must, therefore, have often happened, that, after some twenty or thirty moves, the contest remained to be concluded between two players only; and this circumstance of itself was sufficient to have given rise to the mediaval game. But this is not all; it is evident the Chaturanga might have been, and frequently was, played by only one person on each side, and that, too, from beginning to end. Of this fact we have a noted instance in the case of Yudhishthira (as stated in Chapter II.,) who lost the whole of his possessions in a premature encounter with Shakuni at this very game. Nay, further, it is extremely probable for reasons immediately to be assigned-that the game of Chaturanga was generally played by either four or two persons, without admitting the use of the dice at all, except merely for the purpose of determining

which party should have the first move. If we examine into the principles of the game, and, so far as we have the means, into its practical working, we shall find that the dice do not in any way constitute an essential element. On the contrary, it is evident that, after having determined who is to have the first move, the dice may be wholly laid aside, and the struggle becomes a mere matter of wary tactics and strategic skill.

Now we have excellent reasons for believing that at a very early age the use of the dice must have been altogether discontinued; otherwise the game could not have been played at all, except in secret amongst regular gamesters. In order to understand the validity of these reasons, let us examine into the state of the oldest and most rigid of the Hindu laws, such as those of Manu, &c. The law and religion of the ancient Hindus strictly prohibited two species of gaming-1st, that species called "Dyuta," which is equivalent to our games of chance or hazard, including pure dice, or dice combined with skill, as in the ancient games of Chaupar and Chaturanga. The other class of gaming, as defined by Manu, was called "Samāhwaya," and included all matches between male animals, such as cock-fighting, ram-fighting, &c. Against both these classes Manu is clear and explicit in his denunciations. For instance, in his 9th Book, he says "Let the King punish corporally, at discretion, both the gamester and the keeper of a gaming-house, whether they play with inanimate (Dyuta) or animated things (Samahwaya)."

The law and religion of the Hindus being thus clear and positive against the game of Chaturanga, as explained by Vyasa to Yudhishthira, what was to be done by the contemplative and sedentary Brahmans? The answer is obvious: dismiss the dice from the game, and it no longer

falls under the category of "Dyuta," or game of chance. Besides, in the purer period of the Hindu religion, the Brahmans really had no interest in gambling, for an excellent reason—they were understood to be possessed of no property to lose, and consequently they had no temptation to win worldly wealth. Hence we have every reason to conclude that the game of Chaturanga was generally played amongst the strictly religious and orthodox Hindūs, by two or four persons, as the case might be, without the aid of dice, and that in the course of time this game was changed into the still more intellectual contest of the Shatranj, or mediæval game. It must be confessed, however, that the severe and rigid laws of Manu in latter times became considerably relaxed, and that both sorts of games might at all times be played by special license from the magistrate-on condition that half the winnings should be paid over to the worthy magistrate aforesaid, (to be applied, of course, like the gains of more modern indulgences, to pious purposes), and the remaining half into the pockets of the winner (vide "Halhed's Code of Gentoo' Laws," 8vo edition, London, 1781, page 254). This merely shows that mankind have ever been, and ever will be, the same, whether they dwell on the banks of the Ganges or on those of the Rhine; for in either locality we find that the rigour of the laws against gambling might be relaxed for certain weighty reasons."

This very vulgar term, "Gentoo," was applied to the Hindus by our older writers. It is of Portuguese origin, and means "Gentile " or "Heathen." No writer of the least respectability now uses it.

2 In Scotland there is a very sensible law applicable to gamesters, which appears to be still in force. A few years back I remember reading in the "Times" of a case of gambling, or rather fleecing, which took place in a railway carriage on its way from Edinburgh to Glasgow. The plucked pigeon had the Rooks up before a magistrate, who made the scoundrels disgorge the whole of their ill-got gain, which he handed over to the Kirk Session for the benefit of the poor. Verily this Baillie, whose name I did not learn, is a worthy successor of the renowned Nichol Jarvie, "Let Glasgow flourish."

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