easily be conceived. There is not only the barrier erected by the vice itself, which shuts the heart against all the appeals of the gospel, but the trade introduced and fostered by a so-called Christian Government has filled the

natives with a violent hatred of everything foreign. To the heathen there is but little difference between the English trader and the English missionary, though year by year that difference is coming to be more clearly understood. The preacher of the gospel is almost daily interrupted in his discourse by the question: "Where does opium come from?" and to be taunted with the reproach that his people have brought this great curse on the land. No doubt this trade is responsible in a good degree for the slow progress of Christianity in China as compared with its rapid advance in the neighboring Empire of Japan.

No Chinaman, not even the smoker, will justify the habit. All admit it to be wholly evil. Only Englishmen interested in the revenue pretend to say that it is not injurious. But Sir Thomas Wade, one of England's most distinguished representatives in China, declared : "To me it is vain to think otherwise of the use of opium in China than as a habit many times more pernicious, nationally speaking, than the gin and whiskey drinking we deplore at home."

THE UNITED STATES AND OPIUM.

The history of the relations of the United States Government with the Chinese Empire shows a gratifying change of attitude upon the opium question. The "Convention for the Regulation of Trade" between the two countries, concluded Nov. 8, 1858, provided that the tariff on opium imported into Chinese ports by citizens of the United States should be 30 taels per 100 catties.1 But the treaty of Dec. 17, 1880, proclaimed Oct. 5, 1881 (the United States Commissioners being James B. Angell of Michigan, John F. Swift of California and William Henry Trescot of South Carolina, and the Chinese Commissioners being Pao Chün and Li Hungtsao), provides as follows in Article 2:

United States mutually agree and undertake that Chinese subjects shall not be permitted to

import opium into any of the ports of the United

and citizens of the United States shall

not be permitted to import opium into any of the open ports of China, to transport it from one open port to any other open port. or to buy and sell opium in any of the ports of

China. This absolute prohibition, which extends

to vessels owned by the citizens or subjects of either power, to foreign vessels employed by them, or to vessels owned by the citizens or subjects of either power and employed by other persons for the transportation of opium, shall be enforced by appropriate legislation on the part of China and the United States; and the benefits of the Favored-Nation clause in existing treaties shall not be claimed by the citizens or subjects of either power as against the provisions

article."

Chloral, Chlorodyne, Chloroform, Cocaine and Ether. These preparations are among the most popufar of medicinal agents for inducing sleep or temporarily annihilating pain. The bounds of their legitimate use, however, are overstepped by many, and they become inebriants of great fascination and tyrannous strength. Indeed, alcohol is a chief constituent of each, excepting cocaine. Chloral is made by acting on absolute alcohol with dry chlorine; chlorodyne is a mixture of chloroform with morphia, Indian hemp, prussic acid, peppermint, etc.; chloroform is produced by distilling alcohol with chloride of lime; ether is the product of alcohol and sulphuric acid, and cocaine is prepared from the coca leaf, which in its native state is a powerful and ruinous stimulant, chewed by the inhabitants of the countries where the plant grows.2

All of them excepting ether are of comparatively recent discovery, and they have not been generally employed in medical practice until within the last half century; but physicians testify that they are already claiming multitudes of victims. All are subtle poisons, speedily producing death when taken in undue quantities. They are more dangerous than alcoholic liquors, in that constant care must be exercised to avoid fatal doses. As intoxicants they are not consumed convivially like liquors, but in secret and alone; for they do not produce exhilaration but lethargy and insensibility. The victim, while under their influence, is therefore not violent, murderous or otherwise physically demonstrative; his symptoms rather resemble those of the opium-eater. The effects are as disastrous as those produced by opium indulgence-an insatiable appetite, demanding larger and larger quantities and occasioning an uncontrollable determination to procure the drug at any expense of money, health or honor; gradual loss of will, moral sense and self restraint, and ultimately the most serious functional disorders and distresses. Dr. Norman Kerr tells of "a married lady, the wife of a professional man," who "has cost her husband £220 for chlorodyne during the past six years, although she daily drank only one-fourth of the quantity taken by another case in which four ounces were used every day." These seductive poisons are probably not yet taken very extensively among the common people. Dr. Kerr, speaking of chloral, says: "Literary men, barristers, clergymen and medical men, with some highly sensitive and nervous ladies, have been the subjects of this form of inebriety. I have known no mechanic who has become addicted to chloral, and only one or two individuals engaged in trade or mercantile pursuits."" The appetite for these different drugs results, in most cases, from innocent use, for the purpose of wooing sleep or deadening pain; after a few trials a morbid craving is excited, then the unfortunate habit is fixed. Sometimes victims of opium resort to chloral, chloroform, ether or cocaine in the hope of conquering their tyrant, only to find themselves slaves to an equally remorseless foe whose work of destruc

tion is performed with greater rapidity. "Chloroform," says Dr. Kerr, "is speedier in operation than any of the other forms of inebriety except ether. The nervous depression, the sickness, the perverted nutrition and the continual languor usher in an infirm and demoralized condition of body and brain, which makes of the victim a complete wreck. Unless the mania be resisted and the disease cured, the inevitable consummation by death approaches with startling swiftness. Interspersed with the most transient visions of delight, the life of the chloroform inebriate is but a protracted misery. The visions in the early stage of the diseased manifestations are most agreeable, but later on they become weird and horrid. I have generally found the chloroform habit associated with alcohol. Only in one instance, a medical man, have I seen an abstainer a chloroform habitue. He was, I am happy to say, completely cured." 3

Christian Church - The American Christian Convention, at its quadrennial session held in New Bedford, Mass., Oct. 11, 1886, made the following deliverance:

"Inasmuch as the subject of the limitation

and ultimate extinction of the commerce in in

toxicating drinks is the pre eminent moral question of to-day, and growing in emphasis with each added day; therefore

"RESOLVED, That this Convention do announce itself as the patron and aider of all activities and associations that point clearly, definitely and wisely to a direct and immediate erasure of permissions or sanctions of society or law upon the iniquitous traffic."

Church Action. - The representative deliverances of American churches on

temperance and Prohibition are given separately under the different denominational names.

Church of God. - The General Eldership the highest body in this denomination-held a triennial meeting at West Newton, Pa., May, 1887. The following is taken from the report of the Committee on Temperance, which was adopted by the Eldership:

"Statistics develop the fact that, as a nation, we annually expend in Home and Foreign Missions the sum of $2,500,000, for tobacco the sum of $600,000,000, and for intoxicating liquors the sum of $900,000,000 These expenditures for liquor and tobacco strike at the influence of the church, the home, and the nation. Since the last meeting of this body a number of States have submitted, or are about to submit, the question of Prohibition; and so far as the question has been tested by the expressed voice of the people, the sentiment of Prohibition is fast gaining ground. All kinds of license or tax, favoring the liquor traffic, whether high or low, are wrong in principle and demand the opposition of the church and of good men and women everywhere. We not only re-affirm the sentiments heretofore expressed, but as the cause of Prohibition advances we will keep pace with

the aggressive movement of the temperance

cause until the several States and the National

Government shall by Constitutional Amend. ment or statutory law prohibit the importation, manufacture and sale of all intoxicating liquors, including ale, wine and beer as a beverage, and

to that end we will labor and in every legiti

mate way use our influence."

Church Temperance Society. This is the shorter name of the "Temperance Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America." It was organized in 1881. It is under the general control of an Executive Board of 30 members, and of the 60 Bishops of the Church who act as VicePresidents. The object is threefold: (1) Promotion of temperance; (2) Rescue of the intemperate; (3) Removal of the causes of intemperance. Its basis is thus defined:

"Recognizing temperance as the law of the gospel, and totul abstinence as a rule of conduct essential in certain cases and highly desirable in others, and fully and freely according to every

man the right to decide, in the exercise of his Christian liberty, whether or not he will adopt said rule, this Society lays down as the basis on which it rests and from which its work shall be

conducted, union and co-operation on perfectly equal terms for the promotion of temperance between those who use temperately and those who abstain entirely from intoxicating drinks as beverages."

The country is divided into four general departments: (1) Central, including New York, New Jersey and Connecticut, with headquarters at 16 4th avenue, New York ('ity. (2) New England, including Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, with Rev. S. H. Hilliard, Boston, as the Department Secretary. (3) Pennsylvania, including Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland, with Rt. Rev. Bishop Coleman, Wilmington, Del., as Department Secretary. (4) Ohio, including Ohio, Michigan and Indiana, with Rev. E. R. Atwill, D.D., Toledo, O., as Department Secretary

For remedial agencies the Society names the following: (1) The gospel. (2) Coffee-houses as counteractives to saloons. (3) Improved dwellings for the poor. (4) Healthy literature. To help supply the last-named want, it publishes a monthly paper called Temperance (New York). Its policy is that of restriction rather than Prohibition. It aims at (1) Prohibition of sale on Sunday. (2) Prohibition of sale to minors. (3) Prohibition of sale to intoxicated persons. (4) High License or tax of $1,000 on every saloon. (5) Only one saloon to each 500 people. (6) Local Option.

No pledge is administered to a child without the written consent of his parents. No alternative pledge can be taken until the person subscribing to it is 21 years of age. No life-pledge is given to any. The conditions of membership are, assent to the constitution and the payment of $1 a year. Outgrowths of the Society are juvenile organizations called the Knights of Temperance and Young Crusaders. The Chairman of the Church Temperance Society is Rev. W. R. Huntington, D.D., Rector of Grace Church, New York.

ROBERT GRAHAM. (Secretary Church Temperance Society.) Cider.-See VINOUS LIQUORS.

Cigarettes. See TOBACCO.

Civil Damage Acts. - The New York Civil Damage act is representative

of all measures of similar character. It provides:

"Every husband, wife child, parent, guardian, employer or other person who shall be injured in person or property or means of support by any intoxicated person, or in consequence of the intoxication, habitual or otherwise, of any person, shall have a right of action in his or her name, against any person or persons who shall, by selling or giving away intoxicating liquors, cause the intoxication, in whole or in part, of such person or persons; and any person or persons owning or renting or permitting the occupation of any building or premises, and

having knowledge that intoxicating liquors are

to be sold therein, shall be liable, severally or jointly, with the person or persons selling or giving intoxicating liquors as aforesaid, for all damages sustained and for exemplary damages;

and damages recovered by a minor under this act shall be paid either to such minor or to his or her parent, guardian or next friend, as

the Court shall direct; and the unlawful sale or

giving away of intoxicating liquors shall work

For information of the extent to which the Civil Damage principle is recognized in the statutes of the various States and Territories, see LEGISLATION.

Claret. See VINOUS LIQUORS.

Clark, Billy James. - Born in Northampton, Mass., Jan. 4, 1778, and died in Glens Falls, N. Y., March 20, 1867. He was educated at Northampton Academy, studied medicine with Dr. Hicker of Easton, N. Y., and began its practice soon after in Moreau, Saratoga County, N. Y. In 1821 he was a member of the New York Legislature, and in 1848 a Presidential Elector. He was the originator and organizer of what is known as the first temperance society in history. Having read Dr. Benjamin Rush's famous essay on the "Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Mind and Body," Dr. Clark, one evening in March, 1808, called to see his friend in Moreau, Rev. Libbeus Armstrong, and startled him with the declaration: "Weshall all become a com

munity of drunkards in this town unless something is done to arrest the progress of intemperance." Mr. Clark proposed the formation of a temperance society, and with the co-operation of Rev. Mr. Armstrong drafted a constitution for "The Union Temperance Society of Moreau and Northumberland." This society was organized April 30, 1808, 43 men signing the roll. They held regular quarterly and annual meetings, and kept up the organization for 14 years. The constitution provided, among other things, that "no member shall drink rum, gin. whiskey, wine or any distilled spirits, or compositions of the same or any of them, except by advice of a physician, or in case of actual disease, also excepting at public dinners, under the penalty of 25 cents, provided that this article shall not infringe on any religious rite;" that "no member shall be intoxicated under penalty of 50 cents," and that "no member shall offer any of the above liquors to any person to drink thereof under the penalty of 25 cents for each offense."

Climatic Influences. - Wind and weather are two scapegoats that have to bear the blame of countless sins against the health laws of nature. The consequences of indoor life in an atmosphere

fretting our lungs with tobacco fumes and all sorts of vile gases are ascribed to the influence of the fell March wind. Fast young men suspect a "cold" as the cause of their nervous exhaustion. Gluttons attribute their gastric chills to a draught of cool night air, or a "sudden change in the weather." But the strangest of all climatic delusions is, after all, the theory which explains the intemperance of northern nations as a necessary consequence of a low temperature. "Cold weather," our barroom physiologists inform us, "naturally prompts us to resort to ardent beverages, just as we resort to chimney-fires and warm clothing." " Firewater" (Spanish, aguardiente) and many similar terms have, indeed, become international synonyms of alcoholic beverages, and together with the caustic taste of such liquors have led to the popular inference that alcohol is a chemical fuel, a liquid heat-producer, and under certain conditions a valuable substitute for calorific food and warm clothing. The lessons of instinct, however, might help even nonscientific observers to suspect the correctness of that conclusion. We may be very sure that among the countless millions of modern topers not one ever began to prefer alcohol to more wholesome beverages from a desire to counteract the influence of a low temperature.

A ragged child, locked up in a cold room warmed at one end by a feeble fire, and furnished with a few thin blanketsand a large variety of ardent liquors, would at once make for the fire-place, and after exhausting the supply of fuel would use the blankets to supplement its scant dress; but after tasting the alcoholic samples would at once reject them as useless for any present purposes, unless experiments should suggest the plan of flinging them in the fire. In that way alcohol might be utilized as a fuel, but as a calorific beverage it is as unavailable as coal-oil. Up in Manitoba, where the mercury sinks to 55° below zero, and where half-frozen wolves would not hesitate to devour a panful of biscuits or lick up a plateful of milk and sugar, neither hunger nor frost would tempt them to touch a pailful of brandy, though it might prove the only unfrozen fluid for miles around. The reason is that instinct, through the sense of taste, would inform them that fat, starch and sugar are heat-producers and aliments, but that for the organic purposes of the animal system alcohol is as useless as spirits of turpentine. Begin ners, indeed, are apt to feel chilly after a more than usually large dose of brandy, though years afterwards, when the perversion of instinct has begot a progressive poison habit, alcohol seems to answer the purposes of an organic fuel by initiating the stimulant fever which to the victim of the besetting vice has become a periodic necessity; but for all actual benefit to his system the stimulant dupe might as well have tried to excite that fever by dosing himself with sulphate of quinine. Science fully explains those facts.

The experiments of Prof. Rentz and Dr. Hammond have proved that under the influence of alcohol and similar narcotic poisons the elimination of carbonic acid is diminished, the supply of animal heat being thus decreased in proportion to the alcoholic dose. For calorific purposes, alcohol is not only inferior to fat, starch and sugar, but even to common spring-water which offers its elements of hydrogen in a far more available form, while brandy merely counterfeits a momentary feeling of warmth (the effect of a scorching irritant) but in its net result does not assist but directly hinders the organic process by which the body maintains its normal temperature. "Are ardent spirits necessary?" asks Captain Edward Perry, after a 12 years' experience in the coldest climate ever braved by Arctic explorers. "I say decidedly, no. It is said they keep the cold out. I say they do not. They let the cold in."

The idea that alcohol counteracts the malarial tendency of a sultry climate is an equally baneful delusion. Every "bitters"cursed city of our Southern gulf-coast should publish the memorandum of the Rev. James Gregson, a British missionary who passed many years in the lowland regions of Southern Hindustan. "I can appeal to returns," he says, "which have not been collected by rabid bigots but signed by medical officers, and which tell you what I believe to be the honest truth,

that India's bottle has buried more than India's sun. The man who goes to Bengal with the notion that he need not relinquish his liquor, will be in danger of having to relinquish his life. Nearly all those cases of so-called heart-apoplexy would more properly be called bottle-apoplexy.”

The abstinent Arabs have preserved their physical vigor in the burning desert of their native peninsula. How is it that a far more bracing climate has failed to prevent the degeneration of the alcoholized Spaniards and Italians? Shall we adopt the view of a German ethnologist who ascribes that enervation to the luxuries and vices of the Roman Empire? In Rome itself that explanation might perhaps hold good; but what about the outlying provinces which, long after the fall of Rome, were conquered by hardy tribes of Northland warriors? What about Sicily, for instance, where not drunken Romans but abstemious Saracens were expelled by a legion of ironfisted Normans, who, towards the end of the 11th Century, followed Robert Guiscard across the strait of Messina? It so happens that the descendants of those mail-clad giants can still be traced by their Norman-French names; and it likewise so happens that an abundance of "good cheap country wine" has turned them into the puniest and sickliest bipeds of the Mediterranean coastlands.

FELIX L. OSWALD.

Coffee-Houses. -Coffee-houses as rivals of liquor-taverns have been favored almost from the beginning of the active temperance agitation. As early as 1830 and 1831 there was a coffee-house movement in Scotland, under the auspices of temperance societies, resulting in the successful operation of such establishments in nearly all the principal towns and cities, but many of them at that time sold the lighter alcoholic beverages as well as tea and coffee. It was in protest against this practice that the Dunfermline Society, Sept. 21, 1830, formed itself into the "Dunfermline Association for the promotion of temperance by the relinquishment of all intoxicating liquors," and passed a resolution agreeing " to give no encouragement or support to any coffeehouse established or receiving counte nance from any temperance society, for the sale of intoxicating liquors." In 18442 "the coffee-houses of Glasgow, conducted on strict temperance principles, and provided with news-rooms, etc., were in some respects much superior to the