ISOCRATES. Born B.C. 436.-Died B.C. 338. An orator of Athens, of whose numerous orations only twenty-one are extant. His natural timidity prevented him from speaking at any of the public assemblies; but he gave instruction in oratory to a great number of rich and distinguished pupils, from whom he derived great wealth. His orations are remarkable for the purity and elegance of their language, and also for the high tone of moral feeling to which they give expression. DEMOSTHENES. Born B.C. 385-Died B.C. 322. The greatest orator of the Greeks, a pupil of Isæus, and according to some authorities, of Plato and Isocrates. For fourteen years he devoted all his energies to resist the aggressions of Philip of Macedon; who put an end to the struggle by his victory at Charonea, when the independence of Greece received its final blow. Demosthenes terminated his life to avoid falling into the power of Antipater, by sucking poison from pen in the temple of Poseidon at Calauria, to which he had fled for sanctuary. his PHILEMON. Born B.C. 371-Died B.C. 274 A comic poet of Greece, contemporary with Menander. The fragments of his works which remain display much wit, elegance, and observation. MENANDER. Born B.C. 342-Died B.C. 291. A celebrated comic poet of Athens, educated under Theophrastus. Of 108 comedies which he wrote, only a few fragments remain. His compositions are entirely free from the gross expressions and illiberal satire which abound in those of Aristophanes, and give expression to so much excellent morality and generous sentiment, that it is to be lamented so small a portion of his writings are extant. Terence has preserved both the action and the language of some of Menander's comedies in his imitations of them; but no adequate idea of them can be formed from this source. THEOPHRASTUS. A Greek philosopher, a disciple of Plato, and afterwards of Aristotle, by whom his name was changed from Tyrtamus to Theophrastus, or the Divine Speaker, on account of the grace and fluency of his language. He succeeded Aristotle as president of the Lyceum, and is said to have had as many as two thousand disciples. Theophrastus composed many books, and Diogenes has enumerated the titles of above two hundred treatises, all written with great elegance, but of which six only are extant. Characteres contains a description of vicious characters; and is remarkable for the picture it gives of the manners of certain classes of the Athenians. The Theophrastus died, loaded with years, yet lamenting the shortness of life, and complaining of the partiality of nature, in granting longevity to the crow and the stag, but not to man. CLEANTHES. Born B.C. 300-Died B.C. 220. A Stoic, born at Assos in Troas. He was poor, and worked all night at drawing water for gardens that he might devote the day to the study of philosophy. He succeeded Zeno, whose disciple he was, in the direction of his school, and was honoured by a statue erected to his memory by the Romans. Cleanthes appears to have maintained some principles of truth, and to have expressed sentiments of piety and virtue. Clement of Alexandria speaks in the highest praise of his writings, which he regards rather as displaying a genuine theology than a poetical theogony. His celebrated Hymn to Jupiter is almost the only one of his productions extant: it contains many striking passages, which seem to indicate some apprehension of doctrines which could only have been imparted originally by revelation. THEOCRITUS. A bucolic poet, a native of Syracuse. He visited Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy Soter, and there became acquainted with Aratus. It is probable that he may have had some knowledge of the Jewish Scriptures, which were translated about that time into Greek, especially as he appears to have borrowed many poetic figures and similitudes from the Canticles of Solomon, to which, as a pastoral allegory, his attention in composing idyls might naturally be directed. BION. Flourished B.C. 280. A bucolic poet born at Smyrna : he appears to have dwelt in Sicily, where he died of poison, as appears from an elegy written on his death by Moschus, his pupil. ARATUS. Flourished B.C. 270. A native of Soli in Cilicia. He was appointed physician to Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia, and also experienced the favour of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Theocritus is said to have borrowed from him the pious beginning of his seventh ode. He wrote two astronomical poems, the Phenomena, an account of the constellations, with the rules for their risings and settings, and the Diosemeia, consisting of prognostics of the weather from observations of the heavens. Clement of Alexandria supposes that St. Paul quotes from Aratus at Acts xvii. 28; which see. LYCOPHRON. A poet of Alexandria. The only one of his poems which has come down to us, the Cassandra or Alexandra represents the prophecies of Cassandra concerning the fall of Troy, and embraces many mythological and historical events. Its obscurity is proverbial. CALLIMACHUS. Flourished B.c. 256. This celebrated poet and grammarian was chief librarian of the famous library at Alexandria, where he founded a grammatical school. His works were very numerous, and on various subjects, but some of his poems are all that remain to us, viz., six Hymns, a collection of Epigrams, and some fragment of Elegies. Callimachus was one of the seven men of genius at Alexandria who were distinguished by the name of Pleiades. He lived at the time when the Septuagint version of the scriptures was made, and from his office of librarian must have had many opportunities of becoming acquainted with it. Accordingly some vestiges of sacred truth are to be found in his hymns; and it is probable that these would have been much more frequent had not the bulk of his writings been lost. His Atria, an epic poem, On the causes of the various Mythical stories, is especially to be regretted. MOSCHUS. A grammarian and pastoral poet of Syracuse, a pupil of Bion. Four of his idyls only are extant. APOLLONIUS RHODIUS. Flourished B.C. 194. A native of Alexandria, and some time chief librarian there. His Argonautica, a poem in four books, gives an account of the adventures of Jason and his companions in quest of the golden fleece, and the return of the adventurers to their native shores after long and perilous wanderings. He was a pupil of Callimachus. POLYBIUS. Born B.C. 204; Died B.C. 122. A celebrated historian, a native of Megalopolis, in Arcadia. After the conquest of Macedonia B.C. 168, he was carried to Rome, and there, finding a liberal patron in Scipio, was able, by his means, to obtain access to public documents and to accumulate materials for his great historical work. He tells us that he made long and dangerous journeys into Africa, Spain, and Gaul, and even to the shores of the Atlantic, on account of the ignorance that prevailed respecting those countries. He also visited Egypt. His Universal History embraced a period of fifty-three years, from B.C. 220 to B.C. 146. It consisted of forty books, of which the first five only remain entire. DIODORUS SICULUS. The author of an Universal History, embracing the period from the earliest mythical ages to the beginning of Cæsar's Gallic wars. Only fifteen of his forty books, with some fragments collected from Photius and others, are now extant. Diodorus is particularly commended by Justin Martyr for the confirmation which he affords to the Mosaic history; and many testimonies to the truth of the sacred writings, and the fulfilment of prophecy, may be gleaned from his books. He speaks of Moses by name, as the first legislator, and as one who professed to derive his precepts from IAO, or JEHOVAH. STRABO. Born B.C. 54.-Died A.D. 24.. A native of Pontus, author of a work on Geography in seventeen books, which has come down to us almost entire. Strabo visited most of the countries which he describes, and has given details of the institutes, manners, policy, and religion, of various nations with great accuracy and judgment. The notices of sacred history which are scattered through this work are often of considerable importance, and bear abundant testimony to the truth of the accounts given in holy scripture. He mentions Moses and the Exodus, and refers to many of the ordinances of the Levitical dispensation. DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS. Flourished B.C. 20.-Died A.D. 7. A celebrated Rhetorician: author of a History of Rome in twenty-two books; from the mythical times down to B.C. 264, in which year the history of Polybius begins with the Punic wars. He was a native of Halicarnassus, but his history was written at Rome, where he lived on terms of friendship with many distinguished men, and had great opportunities of acquiring information, EPICTETUS. Flourished A.D. 90. A celebrated Stoic philosopher, born at Hierapolis in a servile condition, and sold as a slave to Epaphroditus, a freedman of Nero. Having acquired his freedom, he devoted himself to philosophy and taught in Rome, but was banished with other philosophers by Domitian, and retired to Nicopolis, in Epirus. He afterwards returned to Rome, where he was kindly treated by Adrian. He wrote nothing; but his Manual or Enchiridion, and eight books of Dissertations (of which four only are extant) were collected by his pupil Arrian; being drawn up from notes which had been taken from his oral teaching by his disciples. The sum of his moral precepts is ȧvéxov kaì áñéxov, "Endure and abstain;" he teaches that all things happen according to the appointment of Providence, and are to be accepted with resignation. Some have supposed that he was a convert to Christianity; but although he lived at Rome at the very time that Paul preached there, and was probably well acquainted with his doctrines, it is evident from the way in which he speaks of the Christians that he had not adopted their faith, The discourses of Epictetus have been held in the highest estimation both by Christians and heathens. Lucian tells us that his lamp was bought for 3,000 drachms, by a person who was persuaded that if he went to sleep with it in his room the wisdom of Epictetus would be communicated to him in a dream, and produce in him a conformity to the mind of the philosopher. PLUTARCHUS. Flourished A.D. 110. A philosopher and biographer, a native of Charonea in Boeotia. The writings of Plutarch are replete with instruction. His Lives make us acquainted with the most interesting characters of antiquity; while his moral and critical works contain the most solid reflections, and are calculated to promote a due regard to the relative and social duties of life. The biographical writings of Plutarch consist of forty-six Lives, which are arranged in pairs, each pair containing a Greek and a Roman, with a comparison of the two men. His Moral or Ethical Works are above sixty in number, some of which are of little value, while others are distinguished for sound sense and practical wisdom. His philosophy is derived sometimes from Plato and sometimes from Aristotle. As a moralist he is far in advance of his times; and though he does not make mention of the Christian religion, it is difficult to believe that he was not acquainted with its doctrines and traditions. Plutarch is said to have been a priest of the Pythian Apollo at Charonea, where he spent the later years of his life. ARRIANUS. Flourished A.D. 134. A native of Nicomedia, who became a disciple of Epictetus, and first attracted notice as a philosopher by publishing at Athens the lectures of his master. Arrian was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and having distinguished himself in the war against the Massagetæ, was rewarded with senatorial and even consular dignities. His two principal works, which are still extant, are the History of Alexander's Expedition and the History of India. MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS. Flourished A.D. 160. This distinguished Emperor cherished throughout his whole life a love of literature, philosophy, and virtue. His Meditations, in twelve books, furnish a code of ethics which demonstrate how much the general tone of morality was improved by the influence of Christianity, even where the principles of the Gospel were not professedly adopted; and yet M. Aurelius is stated to have permitted, if not expressly countenanced, a severe persecution of the Christians. LUCIANUS. Flourished A.D. 160. A native of Samosata, a city on the Euphrates, but by descent a Greek. As many as eighty-two works still extant are attributed to this author. The writings of Lucian are characterised throughout by scepticism and the severest satire. According to Suidas he was surnamed the Blasphemer, and was torn to pieces by dogs for his impiety; it was said of him that he "spared neither gods nor men; but while attacking religion, philosophy, and even history, he does not pretend to advance anything in their stead, or to bring in any better code of morality or doctrine. Lucian appears to have been well acquainted with many of the facts of the Old Testament history, to which he makes frequent allusion; he refers to passages both in the Old and New Testament, and in his Philopatris (which is, however, ascribed by some to a later writer) he notices the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, and the doxology still used in the Greek Church, "beginning with the Father and ending with the Son." He refers also to St. Paul, whom he describes as a long-nosed Galilean, who had ascended to the third heaven and received divine instruction; and mentions the prayer beginning with "Our Father." It has been supposed that Lucian was at one time a convert to Christianity; but in mentioning the Christians he does so with contempt and ridicule, while he bears testimony, nevertheless, to the integrity and simplicity of their lives, to their mutual love and charity, to the zeal which they displayed for their religion, and to their readiness to endure martyrdom for its sake. MAXIMUS TYRIUS. A Platonic philosopher, supposed by some to have been one of the tutors of M. Aurelius. He appears to have spent the greater part of his life in Greece, but he visited Rome once or oftener. Maximus Tyrius wrote forty-one Dissertations on theological, moral, and philosophical subjects, which are still extant. CLAUDIUS ELIANUS. Elian was the author of two extant works; the one a collection of Various Histories, the other a treatise on the Peculiarities of Animals. He lived at Rome. Both his works appear to have been compiled, at least in part, from earlier authors, whose names are not given. The author of a great number of comedies, of which twenty only are extant. Varro commends the purity of the language in which they are written, but the incidents and parts of the dialogue are disfigured by obscenity, and are calculated to vitiate the taste and weaken the impressions of virtue. Plautus in some instances distinguishes between Jupiter and the other deities, and speaks of One God superior to all the rest: he also gives utterance to some moral sentiments, and holds up to ridicule and contempt those who are influenced by base and unworthy motives. P. TERENTIUS AFER. On his manu A celebrated comic poet, born at Carthage in a state of servitude. mission he assumed the name of his patron, having been previously called Publius. Terence wrote six comedies, all of which we possess; five of them are borrowed, as to their subject, from the Greek stage. There are some passages in Terence which indicate right apprehensions of the Divine nature. His plays contain sentiments of great beauty, and display a benevolent and generous disposition in the writer; but they are not free from impurity of subject, and treat the vices of the age with too much levity and indulgence. T. LUCRETIUS CARUS. Born B.C. 95. Died B.C. 52. A Roman poet, author of a didactic poem in hexameters, entitled De rerum naturæ. He is said to have been educated at Athens in the Epicurean philosophy; but his writings display the spirit of infidelity, even to the denying the providence of God, and a future state of existence for man. In combating the prevalent opinions as to the origin of the world, and the earliest mythologies, Lucretius recites (in order that he may contradict) many of the heathen traditions which appear to have been founded upon events recorded in the holy scriptures. He speaks of the first chaos, and details the order in which all things were produced from the earth. He refers to the original state of man before the fall, to the deluge, and to the future destruction of the world by fire. These testimonies are the more remarkable as being found in a work so strongly characterised by its hostility to all religion. M. TULLIUS CICERO. Born B.C. 106-Died B.C. 43. The son of a Roman knight of Arpinum, who brought him at an early age to Rome to be educated, with his brother Quintus. Cicero studied philosophy under Philo, and jurisprudence under Marcius Scævola the augur; he also received instruction in rhetoric from Molo the Rhodian. Being of a delicate constitution he visited Athens on account of his health, and was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries, which, according to Warburton, were calculated to impress the mind with a conviction of the unity of the Deity and of the immortality of the soul. In B.C. 75 Cicero was quæstor in Sicily; he was afterwards prætor at Rome, and was at length elected consul. During his consulship he was the means of overthrowing the conspiracy of Catiline, for which service he received the title of "Father of his Country." When the civil war between Cæsar and Pompey broke out, Cicero attached himself to the latter, but after the battle of Pharsalia, he returned to Brundisium, and became reconciled to Cæsar, who not only pardoned him for the part he had taken but treated him with the greatest kindness and respect. Cicero now retired into the country and seldom visited Rome, being chiefly occupied at this time with his philosophical and rhetorical works. After the murder of Cæsar he joined the republican party and attacked M. Antony in his Philippic Orations; this was the cause of his destruction. When the triumvirate of Augustus, Antony, and Lepidus was formed, Cicero, with about 200 others, was condemned to death. He endeavoured to escape by sea; but being overtaken near Caieta, he was assassinated. His head and hands were carried to Rome and nailed to the rostra. |