authority of the last named. But in every such instance of an historical character, it will be found that the heathen accounts may be referred to similar and earlier notices in the Old Testament; and that the resemblance they offer to the incidents described by the apostles is merely accidental. The same remark will apply to some of the moral precepts and opinions quoted, which it must be acknowledged were enunciated by their heathen authors long before the publication of those parts of Holy Scripture with which they are compared. But the principles of truth advanced by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, although asserted with greater distinctness and authority in the New Testament, are to be found also in the Old; and may have been derived originally either from the maxims of wisdom and virtue with which all Scripture abounds, or from the examples of the patriarchs and holy men of old by whom those maxims were observed and practised.

If it should still be urged that to bring the Word of God at all into parallelism with the writings of men is unseemly, and derogatory to the sacred character in which the former must ever stand alone, the example of the inspired writers themselves may be pleaded in reply. St. Paul more than once adopts the language of heathen authors, and applies it not only to a question of morals, as in the Epistle to the Corinthians-""Evil communications corrupt good manners;" but also to a point of religious doctrine, as in his address to the Athenians, where, speaking of the Deity, he says "In him we live, and move, and have our being; as certain also of your own poets have said-For we are his offspring." The example of our blessed Lord himself may also be adduced; and that not when he was on earth, going in and out among the sons of men; but when, after his ascension, he spake from his throne in Heaven to Saul. On that occasion, though his words were few, he did not disdain to take into his lips, and to sanctify by his own utterance a heathen proverb-3 It is hard for thee to kick against the pricks." With this authority for the application of profane wisdom to the furtherance of religious truth, the author of the following work feels that the design which he proposed to himself needs no apology. As regards the execution of it, he is conscious of many faults; but he will only say in the words of the author of Maccabees-"If I have done well, and as fitting the subject, it is that which I desired; but if slenderly and meanly it is that which I could attain unto."

11 Cor. xv. 33, and notes p. 579.

2 Acts xvii. 28, and notes p. 546. 3 Acts ix. 5, and notes p. 537. 42 Maccab. xv. 38.

Very little use has been made in the following pages of those histories which have been preserved by Christian writers, or of those which profess to be derived directly from the Jewish chronicles; the object of this work being, as has been already stated, to set forth the independent and unconscious evidence of those who neither knew, nor desired to know, the sacred writings which they corroborate. Hermes and Sanchoniatho, the earliest Phoenician writers, Manetho and Hecatæus of the Egyptians, Zoroastres the Persian, Josephus the great historian of the Jews, Abydenus, Berosus, and others, are, on this account, very rarely quoted in the following pages.

A few brief notes have been introduced, where necessary, to point out the connections or to explain the allusions of the passages cited; but for the most part these have been left to speak for themselves. Where the particular significance of a word or sentence required a literal translation, this has been given; but in all other cases, and especially in quoting from the poets, some standard version of acknowledged value has been preferred; many of which are to be found in BOHN'S CLASSICAL LIBRARY. For the convenience of those, however, who may desire to consult the originals, reference is given, in every instance, to the Greek or Latin; although the subdivisions, especially of the metrical writers, will not always correspond with those of the translations employed.

The author's acknowledgments are due to a great many writers who have preceded him in the same field of research, and of the results of whose learning, labour, and judgment he has thankfully and freely made use. He had, himself, been accustomed for many years, to mark, in the course of his reading, such passages in the Greek and Latin classics as seemed to present any striking parallelism, either of language or sentiment, of history or description, with the sacred writings; and these passages, when collected and arranged, appeared to him sufficiently interesting to warrant their publication in the form in which they now appear; but in preparing his work for the press he has been led to enlarge upon his first design, and to swell the contents of the volume by a vast number of quotations, collected from a variety of sources; from the most approved commentaries on the whole or separate portions of the Holy Scriptures, from standard works on the mythology, history, and antiquities of the Greeks and Romans, and from other books treating more or less immediately on the subject in hand. While confessing his obligations generally to a great number of writers on these topics, he feels it necessary to make particular

mention of the following works, to which he is especially indebted; and to these he ventures, at the same time, to refer such of his readers as may wish to investigate still further the connection that exists between sacred and profane literature-between the law of nature as displayed in the writings of heathen moralists, and the revelation of God's will in the Holy Scriptures:-CLEMENTIS ALEXANDRINI Stromata.-EUSEBII Præparatio et Demonstratio Evangelica.-STOBEI Loci Communes Sacri et Profani, &c.— GROTII Annotationes.-IBID. De Veritate Religionis Christianæ.-GALE's Court of the Gentiles.-HAMMOND'S Annotations on the New Testament.— STILLINGFLEET's Origines Sacræ.-CUDWORTH's Intellectual System of the Universe.-PRIDEAUX' Old and New Testament connected.-SHUCKFORD'S Sacred and Profane History connected.-BLACKWALL'S Sacred Classics defended and illustrated.-BANIER'S Mythology and Fables of the Ancients explained from History.-ELSNERI Observationes Sacræ in Novi Fœderis libros. RAPHELII Annotationes in Sacram Scripturam.-KYPKE Observationes Sacræ in Novi Foœderis libros.-NEWTON'S Dissertations on the Prophecies. -BRYANT'S Analysis of Ancient Mythology.--Observations upon the Plagues of Egypt.-BULKLEY'S Notes on the Bible.-GRAY'S Connection between the Sacred Writings and the literature of Heathen Authors.--LowTH's Notes on Isaiah.--KEITH'S Evidence of Prophecy.KITTO'S Notes in the Pictorial Bible.-Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I., Dictionaries of Greek and Roman Antiquities, Geography, and History, &c., edited by Dr. Smith.

The Biographical Notices of the several authors quoted have been compiled partly from ancient writers, partly from GRAY'S CONNECTION, above mentioned, and partly from the Classical Dictionaries of Lempriere and Smith.

At the time when the land of Egypt was enshrouded in thick darkness, the children of Israel, we are told, "had light in their dwellings." There was nothing remarkable in the fact that they had light, for they were accustomed to it; it was the daily gift of God which never failed them; but the darkness of the surrounding country led them to take notice of it, to appreciate the blessing, and to recognise the mercy of him by whom it was bestowed. So may we, while we compare our privileges with those of the ancient Pagans, our light with their comparative darkness, learn to thank God for the benefits which we enjoy. For us, "the darkness is past, and the true light shineth:" may we, as children of the light be faithful in our day and generation. May we employ our privileges for our own spiritual improvement, and for the glory of God.

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES

OF THE

PRINCIPAL AUTHORS QUOTED.

GREEK AUTHORS.

ORPHEUS.

It is impossible to assign any date to the writings which are ascribed to Orpheus, nor does it appear to be quite certain that any real poet of that name ever existed. By some writers he is represented to have lived before the Trojan war; and Clement of Alexandria asserts that many fragments of his works are to be found interwoven with the Homeric poems. Diodorus and Pausanias mention Orpheus by name, and Pherecy des is said by Suidas to have made a collection of his writings at a very early period.

Many of the poems called Orphica are ascribed to Onomacritus, who lived about five hundred years before the Christian era; and it is certain that they were current at that period. They are often quoted by Plato. The extant poems consist of the Theogony, a series of Hymns, a treatise on the properties of stones, called Lithica, and the Argonautica, an epic poem descriptive of the Argonautic expedition, in which the poet is supposed to have borne a part.

Cudworth quotes many passages from the Orphic writings, indicative of a belief in a Supreme God, antecedent and superior to all other deities; and the opinions of the author on the subject of the divine nature appear generally to coincide with those of Pythagoras and Plato. Some fragments of his hymns have been supposed to indicate an acquaintance with the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, but these are for the most part found only in writers of a much later period, and there is great doubt as to their genuineness. See notes on Matt. iii. 16, and 1 John v. 7.

MUSEUS.

Museus may be classed with Orpheus, whose son, or disciple, he is supposed to have been. Of his works some poetical fragments only are extant, and the genuineness even of these is very questionable.

LINUS.

Linus may also be regarded as a semi-mythological personage; and the few verses attributed to him by Stobæus are evidently fabrications of a much more recent date than that to which the existence of this poet must be ascribed.

HOMERUS.

Flourished B.C. 968-884 (?) Contemporary Writings-1 Kings xii, 2 Kings xi, 2 Chron. xiii-xxv, Canticles, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes.

Seven cities contended for the honour of having given birth to Homer. These are named in the following verses

Smyrna, Chios, Colopho, Salamis, Rhodos, Argos, Athenæ,

Orbis de patria certat, Homere, tua.

Homer was universally regarded by the ancients as the author of the two great epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Some fragments of these in the form of poetic lays or legends existed before his time, and were sung by the rhapsodists or minstrels at the great public festivals; but it was Homer who first conceived the idea of uniting them in a consecutive form, and to him therefore, may justly be ascribed the authorship of these great and matchless poems.

The art of writing being almost unknown in those days, a class of rhapsodists at Chios, the Homerids, who called themselves the descendants of the poet, made it their

special business to sing the lays of the Iliad and Odyssey, and to transmit them by oral teaching to their disciples. In this way they were preserved until the days of Pisistratus, by whom, it is said, they were committed to writing.

In the Iliad, Homer describes the resentment of Achilles, and the fatal consequences which ensued in the Grecian army before the walls of Troy. The Odyssey was composed after the Iliad, and has for its subject the wanderings of Ulysses, and his many misfortunes, after the fall of Troy, together with his return to his own country, Ithaca. The two poems are each divided into twenty-four books, each book being distinguished by one of the letters of the Greek alphabet, as the several divisions of the 119th Psalm are by those of the Hebrew.

There are many passages in the Iliad which inculcate moderation and forbearance, and inspire even in the midst of warlike descriptions a love of justice, honour, and benevolence; while the Odyssey is replete with expressions of piety, patriotism, and moral excellence. There is no internal evidence to shew that the poet had any acquaintance with Hebrew writings, or traditions; but he had visited other countries more advanced than his own, and the descriptions of patriarchial manners, as well as the incidents related in his two great poems, remind us constantly of the history, and even of the very language of the sacred Scriptures.

The Hymns attributed to Homer, as well as the Batrachomyomachia, or battle of the frogs and mice, appear to belong to a later date, and to a different writer.

HESIODUS.

Flourished B.C. 735 (?) Contemp. 2. Kings xvi., 2 Chron. xxviii. Hosea. Hesiod is said by some ancient writers to have lived before the age of Homer; by others, about a century later. Pausanias says that in his time Hesiod's verses were to be seen inscribed on tablets in the temple of the Muses, of which the poet was a priest. Clement of Alexandria asserts that he borrowed much from Musaus; as Virgil, in his Georgics, has done from Hesiod. The following works were attributed to Hesiod in antiquity: 1.-Opera et Dies, Works and Days, a didactic poem, containing ethical, political, and economical precepts, of which the latter form the larger portion of the work: rules for navigation, commerce, agriculture, the choice of a wife and the education of a family are also included. Three distinct poems appear to have been inserted in this work, viz., the fable of Prometheus and Pandora; the story of the four ages of the world-the golden, the silver, the brazen, and the iron-and a poetic description of winter. 2.-Theogonia, an account of the origin of the world, and the birth of the gods, concluding with the history of some of the most illustrious heroes. The theory of heaven here introduced, and the description of the deities, became for a time the popular superstition; but it was rejected in later ages by those who obtained information from purer sources; and Pythagoras pretended to have seen the soul of Hesiod in the infernal regions, bound to a brazen column, shrieking under the punishment inflicted on him for having fabricated calumnies against the gods. 3.-The Shield of Hercules, which seems to be an imitation of the description of the shield of Achilles in Homer. This poem is suspected to be spurious.

Hesiod is said to have been murdered, and his body thrown into the sea; but the corpse was brought to shore by some dolphins, and immediately recognised, and the murderers being discovered by the help of the poet's dogs, they were in their turn cast into the sea.

Hesiod appears to have been desirous of exciting a religious spirit, and his works are interspersed with many just and pleasing reflections. One design in his Works and Days is said to have been to wean his brother from idle pleasures and to excite in him a love of industry and virtue. Seleucus Nicator was so much delighted with it that the book was found placed beneath his head after his death. Cicero strongly commends the poet, and the Greeks were so fond of his poetry and moral instructions that they required their children to learn all by heart.

The description of the four first ages of the world are compared with the scriptural account of Eden and the period subsequent to the fall; and the battles of the giants with the history of Babel and the dispersion. The story of Pandora will also be found to bear some analogy to the history of the temptation; and numerous moral precepts are cited in different parts of this work.